3. Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia Naturalis Historia, 3. 103.

4. B. D. Hoyos, "Maharbal's Bon Mot: Authenticity and Survival," B. D. Hoyos, "Maharbal's Bon Mot: Authenticity and Survival," The Cla.s.sical Quarterly The Cla.s.sical Quarterly, New Series, vol. 50, no. 2 (2000), pp. 61014.

5. Plutarch, Plutarch, Fabius Fabius, 15.23; Livy, 27.16.10.

6. Livy (21.34) even cites a tradition that has Hannibal, after his father's death, repatriated to Carthage, only to have Hasdrubal urgently request that he return to Spain. Livy (21.34) even cites a tradition that has Hannibal, after his father's death, repatriated to Carthage, only to have Hasdrubal urgently request that he return to Spain.

7. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 256. The five occasions were at Lake Trasimene, at Cannae, the destruction of Marcus Centenius's force, the first battle at Herdonea, and the second battle at Herdonea.

8. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 62.

9. Livy, 25.11.16. Livy, 25.11.16.

10. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 257.

11. Ibid., p. 27; Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 89; Daly, Ibid., p. 27; Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 89; Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 10.

12. Abram N. Shulsky, Abram N. Shulsky, Deterrence Theory and Chinese Behavior Deterrence Theory and Chinese Behavior (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 2000), p. 30. (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 2000), p. 30.

13. Louis Rawlings, "Celts, Spaniards, and Samnites: Warriors in a Soldier's War," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., Louis Rawlings, "Celts, Spaniards, and Samnites: Warriors in a Soldier's War," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p. 84; Oakley, "Single Combat in the Roman Republic," p. 407.

14. Head, Head, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars, p. 57; see for example Dionysius of Halicarna.s.sus, Roman Antiquities Roman Antiquities, 14.

15. Head, Head, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars, p. 37.

16. Rawlings, "Celts, Spaniards, and Samnites: Warriors in a Soldier's War," p. 83. Rawlings, "Celts, Spaniards, and Samnites: Warriors in a Soldier's War," p. 83.

17. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 139; Jones, "Rome's Relationship with Carthage: A Study in Aggression," p. 28.

18. Polybius, 2.28.10; 2.31.1. Polybius, 2.28.10; 2.31.1.

19. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 11, 18. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 11, 18.

20. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 140.

21. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity, p Warfare in Antiquity, p. 352.

22. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage Carthage, p. 384.

23. Polybius, 3.15.78; Appian, Polybius, 3.15.78; Appian, The Wars in Spain The Wars in Spain, 10.

24. Polybius, 3.8.67. Polybius, 3.8.67.

25. Prevas, Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps Hannibal Crosses the Alps, pp. 578; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 155; Rich, "The Origins of the Second Punic War," p. 18.

26. Polybius 3.33.1718. Polybius 3.33.1718.

27. Polybius 3.35.1; Appian, Polybius 3.35.1; Appian, Hannibalic War Hannibalic War, 1.4.

28. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 20; Daly, Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 20; Daly, Cannae Cannae, pp. 1278.

29. Plutarch, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus Fabius Maximus, 17.1.

30. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 241.

31. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 33.

32. Prevas, Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 85; see also Goldsworthy, The Roman Arm The Roman Arm, Appendix: Logistics.

33. Prevas, Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 84; Livy 21.23.4.

34. Polybius, 3.60.5; Lazenby, Polybius, 3.60.5; Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 34.

35. Livy, 21.30.8. Livy, 21.30.8.

36. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity Warfare in Antiquity, p. 355.

37. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 50.

38. Polybius, 3.40.213; Livy, 21.25.1014; Goldsworthy, Polybius, 3.40.213; Livy, 21.25.1014; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 151.

39. Polybius, 3.49; Livy, 21.31.8. Polybius, 3.49; Livy, 21.31.8.

40. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 71.

41. Lancel (Ibid.) notes that at the end of the nineteenth century a French scholar counted more than three hundred books and articles on the crossing, and Lancel opines that today a second lifetime would be necessary to cover the entire literature that now exists about the crossing. Lancel (Ibid.) notes that at the end of the nineteenth century a French scholar counted more than three hundred books and articles on the crossing, and Lancel opines that today a second lifetime would be necessary to cover the entire literature that now exists about the crossing.

42. Ibid.; Goldsworthy, Ibid.; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 166.

43. Polybius, 3.50.36. Polybius, 3.50.36.

44. Livy, 21.33; Prevas, Livy, 21.33; Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 114.

45. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 90; Prevas, Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 90; Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps Hannibal Crosses the Alps, pp. 127, 151.

46. Prevas, Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps Hannibal Crosses the Alps, pp. 12930; Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 217.

47. Roger Dion, Roger Dion, "La voie heracleenne et l'itineraire transalpine d'Hannibal," "La voie heracleenne et l'itineraire transalpine d'Hannibal," in in Melanges a A Grenier Melanges a A Grenier (coll. "Latomus," LVIII) (Brussels: 1962), p. 538; Werner Huss, (coll. "Latomus," LVIII) (Brussels: 1962), p. 538; Werner Huss, Geschichte der Karthager (Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft Geschichte der Karthager (Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft series, vol. 3, no. 8) (Munich: Beck, 1985), p. 305. series, vol. 3, no. 8) (Munich: Beck, 1985), p. 305.

48. Eduard Meyer, Eduard Meyer, "Noch einmals Hannibals Alpenubergang," Museum Helvetic.u.m "Noch einmals Hannibals Alpenubergang," Museum Helvetic.u.m, vol. 21 (1964), pp. 90101.

49. Prevas, Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 172.

50. Livy, 21.35.810. Livy, 21.35.810.

51. Polybius, 3.55; Prevas, Polybius, 3.55; Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 150.

52. Polybius, 3.56.4. Polybius, 3.56.4.

53. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 168.

CHAPTER V: THE FOX AND THE HEDGEHOG.

1. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 133.

2. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 311.

3. Polybius, 3.61.16. Polybius, 3.61.16.

4. Livy, 21.39.3. Livy, 21.39.3.

5. Livy (21.42) and Polybius (3.623) have similarly elaborate versions of the same story, apparently believing it emblematic of Hannibal's character and mindset. Livy (21.42) and Polybius (3.623) have similarly elaborate versions of the same story, apparently believing it emblematic of Hannibal's character and mindset.

6. Livy (21.46.7) is the main source for this vignette, although Polybius (10.3.37) mentions it. Livy is also honest enough to note that Coelius Antipater gives credit for the rescue to a Ligurian slave. Nevertheless, Scullard Livy (21.46.7) is the main source for this vignette, although Polybius (10.3.37) mentions it. Livy is also honest enough to note that Coelius Antipater gives credit for the rescue to a Ligurian slave. Nevertheless, Scullard (Scipio Africa.n.u.s (Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p. 29) argues that Coelius's version was probably a later invention designed to discredit Africa.n.u.s.

7. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 53.

8. Ibid.; Daly, Ibid.; Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 42.

9. Polybius, 3.66; Livy, 21.47. Polybius, 3.66; Livy, 21.47.

10. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 172.

11. Charles-Picard, Charles-Picard, Vie et Mort de Carthage, p Vie et Mort de Carthage, p. 239; Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 84; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 174.

12. See Goldsworthy, See Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, pp. 1756, for an examination of this line of reasoning.

13. Polybius, 3.72.1113. Livy, 21.55.4, says the Romans numbered eighteen thousand, but Lazenby, Polybius, 3.72.1113. Livy, 21.55.4, says the Romans numbered eighteen thousand, but Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 56, considers this mistaken.

14. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 178.

15. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 56.

16. Polybius, 3.74.1. Polybius, 3.74.1.

17. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 180.

18. Livy, 21.56; Polybius, 3.74.11. Livy, 21.56; Polybius, 3.74.11.

19. Polybius, 3.75.1. Polybius, 3.75.1.

20. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 58.

21. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 181; Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, pp. 5960.

22. Polybius, 3.77.37. Polybius, 3.77.37.

23. Ibid., 3.78.14; Livy, 22.1.34. Ibid., 3.78.14; Livy, 22.1.34.

24. With apologies to Mel Brooks. With apologies to Mel Brooks.

25. Appian, Appian, Hannibalic War Hannibalic War, 8.

26. Livy, 21.63.1; Goldsworthy, Livy, 21.63.1; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 1834.

27. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 61.

28. Polybius, 3.7879; Livy, 22.2.1011. Polybius, 3.7879; Livy, 22.2.1011.

29. Polybius, 3.82; Livy, 22.3.89. Polybius, 3.82; Livy, 22.3.89.

30. Ovid Ovid (Fasti (Fasti, 6.7678) says the battle took place on June 21. The site of the battle is subject to some dispute. Those interested in the various arguments should see Lazenby, Hannibal's War, pp Hannibal's War, pp. 623; Connolly, Greece and Rome, pp Greece and Rome, pp. 1725; and J. Kromayer and G. Veith, Antike Schlachtfelder in Italien und Afrika Antike Schlachtfelder in Italien und Afrika (Berlin: Weidmann, 1912), pp. 14893. However, it seems that the whole basis for any certainty is undermined by the likelihood that the lake's level and sh.o.r.e must have shifted significantly over the course of twenty-two hundred years. (Berlin: Weidmann, 1912), pp. 14893. However, it seems that the whole basis for any certainty is undermined by the likelihood that the lake's level and sh.o.r.e must have shifted significantly over the course of twenty-two hundred years.

31. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 299.

32. Livy, 22.5.8. Livy, 22.5.8.

33. Goldsworthy ( Goldsworthy (The Punic Wars, p. 189) attributes this figure to Fabius Pictor.

34. This pa.s.sage of Livy's (22.7. 614) is particularly vivid and ill.u.s.trates the historian's almost cinematic qualities. This pa.s.sage of Livy's (22.7. 614) is particularly vivid and ill.u.s.trates the historian's almost cinematic qualities.

35. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, pp. 5960.

36. F. W. Walbank, F. W. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius A Historical Commentary on Polybius, vol. 1 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1957), pp. 41011.

37. John F. Shean, "Hannibal's Mules: The Logistical Limitations of Hannibal's Army and the Battle of Cannae," John F. Shean, "Hannibal's Mules: The Logistical Limitations of Hannibal's Army and the Battle of Cannae," Historia Historia, vol. 45, no. 2 (1996), p. 181.

38. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 195.

39. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 101.

40. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 1; Goldsworthy, Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 1; Goldsworthy, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 39.

41. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 4. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 4.

42. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 68; Livy, 22.11.34.

43. Polybius, 3.87.13; Goldsworthy, Polybius, 3.87.13; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars.

44. Polybius, 18.28.9. Polybius, 18.28.9.

45. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, pp. 8990, takes this position.