46. Head, Head, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars, p. 144. Polybius uses the term "long-chophoroi," "long-chophoroi," which is sometimes translated as "pikemen," but it is clear from his use of such troops as skirmishers that he does not mean they were used in a phalanx, nor that they carried pikes. which is sometimes translated as "pikemen," but it is clear from his use of such troops as skirmishers that he does not mean they were used in a phalanx, nor that they carried pikes.

47. Polybius, 3.87.45. Polybius, 3.87.45.

48. Ibid., 3.88.9. Ibid., 3.88.9.

49. Livy, 22.12.45. Livy, 22.12.45.

50. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 317; Shean, "Hannibal's Mules," p. 181.

51. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 5. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 5.

52. Livy (22.13.58) says that was only one guide, but Plutarch (Fabius Maximus, 6.3) maintains it was a number of guides. Livy (22.13.58) says that was only one guide, but Plutarch (Fabius Maximus, 6.3) maintains it was a number of guides.

53. Polybius, 3.9394.5; Livy, 22.1617. Polybius, 3.9394.5; Livy, 22.1617.

54. Livy, 22.23.45. Livy, 22.23.45.

55. Polybius, 3.100.4. Polybius, 3.100.4.

56. Ibid., 101102. Ibid., 101102.

57. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 72.

58. Polybius, 3.1045; Livy, 22.28. Polybius, 3.1045; Livy, 22.28.

59. Polybius, 3.105; Livy, 22.2930. Polybius, 3.105; Livy, 22.2930.

60. Shean, "Hannibal's Mules," p. 183. Shean, "Hannibal's Mules," p. 183.

CHAPTER VI: CANNAE.

1. Livy, 22.35.37. Livy, 22.35.37.

2. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, p. 74.

3. Livy, 22.3940.4; Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 14. Livy, 22.3940.4; Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 14.

4. Ibid., 22.45. Ibid., 22.45.

5. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, p. 60.

6. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 199.

7. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 74.

8. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, p. 67.

9. Ibid. Ibid.

10. The force that defeated the Gauls at Telamon was of a similar size, but this had been the accidental result of two double consular armies trapping a large body of Gallic troops between them. The force that defeated the Gauls at Telamon was of a similar size, but this had been the accidental result of two double consular armies trapping a large body of Gallic troops between them.

11. Polybius, 3.107.915. Polybius, 3.107.915.

12. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 27.

13. Samuels ("The Reality of Cannae," p. 12) argues that there is little sign of any formal Roman military training beyond experience. This seems extreme. It is true that the evidence is fairly shallow, but there do seem to have been well-established procedures. When, for instance, Scipio Africa.n.u.s established a training program for his troops at New Carthage (Polybius, 10.20.14), it seemed far too well organized to have been simply extemporized. Samuels ("The Reality of Cannae," p. 12) argues that there is little sign of any formal Roman military training beyond experience. This seems extreme. It is true that the evidence is fairly shallow, but there do seem to have been well-established procedures. When, for instance, Scipio Africa.n.u.s established a training program for his troops at New Carthage (Polybius, 10.20.14), it seemed far too well organized to have been simply extemporized.

14. See for example Lazenby, See for example Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 77; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, pp. 2001.

15. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 200; Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, p. 67.

16. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 12. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 12.

17. Livy, 22.37.79. Livy, 22.37.79.

18. Livy, 22.4143; Polybius, 3.107.17. Livy, 22.4143; Polybius, 3.107.17.

19. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 34850.

20. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 75.

21. Ibid., p. 57. Ibid., p. 57.

22. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 1819. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 1819.

23. Polybius, 3.114.5; Livy, 22.46.6; Lazenby, Polybius, 3.114.5; Livy, 22.46.6; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 81; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 207. However, Daly (Cannae, p (Cannae, p. 29) adds that this figure does look "suspiciously like an estimate."

24. Lazenby Lazenby (Hannibal's War, p (Hannibal's War, p. 81) estimates around 28,600 line infantry, with 11,400 skirmishers, while Goldsworthy (The Punic Wars (The Punic Wars, p. 207) and Parker (Cannae (Cannae, p. 32) a.s.sign around 32,000 to the heavy infantry and 8000 to skirmishers.

25. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity, p Warfare in Antiquity, p. 326.

26. Foster Grunfeld, "The Unsung Sling," Foster Grunfeld, "The Unsung Sling," MHA: The Quarterly Journal of Military History MHA: The Quarterly Journal of Military History, vol. 9, no. 1 (Autumn 1996).

27. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 1920. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 1920.

28. Appian, Han. 17, also states that Hannibal was short on supplies; Paul Erdkamp, "Polybius, Livy and the 'Fabian Strategy,'" Appian, Han. 17, also states that Hannibal was short on supplies; Paul Erdkamp, "Polybius, Livy and the 'Fabian Strategy,'" Ancient Society Ancient Society, vol. 23 (1992), pp. 12747.

29. Polybius, 3.110112; Lazenby, Polybius, 3.110112; Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 78.

30. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity, p Warfare in Antiquity, p. 315.

31. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 101.

32. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 396.

33. See Appian, Han. 22; Livy, 22.48. See Appian, Han. 22; Livy, 22.48.

34. Edward Fry, "The Field of Cannae," Edward Fry, "The Field of Cannae," The English Historical Review, vol The English Historical Review, vol. 12, no. 48 (1897), p. 751, for the geography of the battlefield.

35. Polybius, 3.112. Polybius, 3.112.

36. Polybius, 3.117.8; Daly Polybius, 3.117.8; Daly (Cannae (Cannae, p. 29) discusses the disposition of those left behind and agrees with Polybius that the great majority would have been left in the main camp, since the smaller camp would be behind the Roman line and therefore need no more than a token garrison.

37. Polybius, 3.113.23. Polybius, 3.113.23.

38. K. Lehmann, K. Lehmann, Klio Klio, vol. 15 (1917), p. 162; Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity, pp Warfare in Antiquity, pp. 3245.

39. J. Kromayer and G. Veith, J. Kromayer and G. Veith, Antike Schlachtfelder Antike Schlachtfelder, vol. 3, no. 1 (190331), pp. 278388; Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, pp. 779.

40. Connolly, Connolly, Greece and Rome at War Greece and Rome at War, p. 184; Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae.

41. Polybius, 3.113; Livy, 22.46.1. Polybius, 3.113; Livy, 22.46.1.

42. Appian, Han. 20; Ennius, Fragment, 282; Livy (22.46.9) also refers to the dust problem. Appian, Han. 20; Ennius, Fragment, 282; Livy (22.46.9) also refers to the dust problem.

43. Appian, Han. 21; Livy, 22.47.1; Polybius, 3.115.1. Appian, Han. 21; Livy, 22.47.1; Polybius, 3.115.1.

44. Martin Samuels's characterization of the Roman cavalry ("The Reality of Cannae," p. 13) as being more like "an English public school outing, rather than a military unit," is probably appropriate, considering the losses it had recently taken. Martin Samuels's characterization of the Roman cavalry ("The Reality of Cannae," p. 13) as being more like "an English public school outing, rather than a military unit," is probably appropriate, considering the losses it had recently taken.

45. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 16. Livy (22.47.15) roughly follows this version also. Plutarch, Fabius Maximus, 16. Livy (22.47.15) roughly follows this version also.

46. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 165.

47. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity Warfare in Antiquity, p. 316.

48. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, pp. 11112.

49. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, pp. 185-6.

50. Adrian Goldsworthy's insights Adrian Goldsworthy's insights (Cannae (Cannae, pp. 12739) into the nature of this kind of combat are very persuasive. See also Zhmodikov, "The Roman Heavy Infantrymen in Battle," p. 71.

51. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 83.

52. Polybius, 3.116.56. Polybius, 3.116.56.

53. Polybius, 3.117.2 Polybius, 3.117.2 54. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, pp. 1956.

55. Sabin, "The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War," p. 76. Sabin, "The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War," p. 76.

56. Victor Davis Hanson, "Cannae," in Robert Cowley, ed., Victor Davis Hanson, "Cannae," in Robert Cowley, ed., Experience of War Experience of War (New York: Norton, 1992), p. 42. (New York: Norton, 1992), p. 42.

57. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, pp. 1968.

58. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 153.

59. Polybius, 3.117.12; see also Appian, Han. 24. Polybius, 3.117.12; see also Appian, Han. 24.

60. Grossman, Grossman, On Killing On Killing, p. 71.

61. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 155.

62. R. J. Ridley, "Was Scipio Africa.n.u.s at Cannae?" R. J. Ridley, "Was Scipio Africa.n.u.s at Cannae?" Latomus Latomus, vol. 34 (1975), p. 161.

63. Lazenby Lazenby (Hannibal's War (Hannibal's War, p. 84) reaches this number using a variety of Livy's figures from 22.4954.

64. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 198.

65. Polybius, 3.117.711. Polybius, 3.117.711.

66. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 159; Frontinus, Stratagems, 4.5.7; Livy, 22.52.4.

67. Livy's figures (22.49.15) are the most convincing and consistent in this regard. Livy's figures (22.49.15) are the most convincing and consistent in this regard.

68. Livy, 22.51.59. Livy, 22.51.59.

69. Again, this is Lazenby's compilation Again, this is Lazenby's compilation (Hannibal's War (Hannibal's War, p. 84) using Livy's figures.

70. Polybius (3.117.6) puts Carthaginian losses at four thousand Gauls, fifteen hundred Spaniards and Libyans, and two hundred cavalry, while Livy (22.52.6) places the losses at around eight thousand total. Polybius (3.117.6) puts Carthaginian losses at four thousand Gauls, fifteen hundred Spaniards and Libyans, and two hundred cavalry, while Livy (22.52.6) places the losses at around eight thousand total.

71. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 108.

72. There is considerable disagreement about whether the incident ever took place. John Lazenby ("Was Maharbal Right?" in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., There is considerable disagreement about whether the incident ever took place. John Lazenby ("Was Maharbal Right?" in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p. 39) argues that "like most good stories, this one is probably apocryphal." Lazenby maintains that because Polybius does not mention Maharbal in his accounts of Cannae, Maharbal was probably not there. On the other hand, Dexter Hoyos ("Maharbal's Bon Mot," pp. 61011) points out that Livy did have Maharbal commanding the Numidians at Cannae, and that Maharbal may well have urged Hannibal to march on Rome after Trasimene and possibly again after Cannae, because, after all, it was good advice.

73. Shean, "Hannibal's Mules," pp. 16773. Shean, "Hannibal's Mules," pp. 16773.

74. B. L. Hallward, "Hannibal's Invasion of Italy," in B. L. Hallward, "Hannibal's Invasion of Italy," in Cambridge Ancient History Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1930), p. 55.

75. Hoyos, "Hannibal: What Kind of Genius," Hoyos, "Hannibal: What Kind of Genius," Greece and Rome Greece and Rome, pp. 1767.

76. Daly, Daly, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 46; Lancel, Hannibal, pp Hannibal, pp. 10910.

77. Bernard Montgomery, Bernard Montgomery, A History of Warfare A History of Warfare (London: World Publishing Co., 1968), p. 98. (London: World Publishing Co., 1968), p. 98.

78. The story is contained in Livy (22.53). Some modern authorities question its veracity. R. J. Ridley ("Was Scipio Africa.n.u.s at Cannae?" pp. 1623) calls it a "romantic story" and cites Scullard, Scipio's biographer, as casting doubt, since Polybius didn't mention it. Yet Scullard himself The story is contained in Livy (22.53). Some modern authorities question its veracity. R. J. Ridley ("Was Scipio Africa.n.u.s at Cannae?" pp. 1623) calls it a "romantic story" and cites Scullard, Scipio's biographer, as casting doubt, since Polybius didn't mention it. Yet Scullard himself (Scipio Africa.n.u.s (Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p. 30) points out that this section of Polybius is not completely preserved, and that Ca.n.u.sium later struck a coin almost certainly depicting Scipio, apparently as a tribute to the incident.

79. Livy, 22.57.26; Appian, Han, 27; Goldsworthy, Livy, 22.57.26; Appian, Han, 27; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 220.

80. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 91.

81. Livy, 22.61.1415. Livy, 22.61.1415.

82. Ibid., 22.57.911. Ibid., 22.57.911.