50. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity, pp Warfare in Antiquity, pp. 2745.

51. Carl von Clausewitz put it at twenty minutes, while J.F.C. Fuller reduced it to fifteen. Goldsworthy, Carl von Clausewitz put it at twenty minutes, while J.F.C. Fuller reduced it to fifteen. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War The Roman Army at War, p. 224.

52. F. E. Adc.o.c.k, F. E. Adc.o.c.k, The Roman Art of War Under the Republic The Roman Art of War Under the Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1940), pp. 812; Goldsworthy, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1940), pp. 812; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 534.

53. See for example Daly, See for example Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 62, fig. 2.

54. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, pp. 512.

55. Ibid., p. 49; Daly, Ibid., p. 49; Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 78. Polybius in particular has nothing to say on this matter.

56. Emilio Gabba, Emilio Gabba, Republican Rome, the Army, and the Allies Republican Rome, the Army, and the Allies, transl. P. J. Cuff (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), pp. 56; Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 12; Lawrence Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire (London: Batsford, 1998), p. 33. (London: Batsford, 1998), p. 33.

57. Daly, Daly, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 73; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 48.

58. Livy, 22.37.79. Livy, 22.37.79.

59. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 13. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 13.

60. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 48.

61. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War The Roman Army at War, p. 125.

62. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, p. 49.

63. Ann Hyland, Ann Hyland, Equus: The Horse in the Roman World Equus: The Horse in the Roman World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 889. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 889.

64. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 634.

65. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, p The Roman Army at War, p. 110.

66. See Polybius 6, 2735; Edward Luttwak, See Polybius 6, 2735; Edward Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), p. 55. (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), p. 55.

67. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War The Roman Army at War, p. 113.

68. Ibid., p. 112. Ibid., p. 112.

69. Polybius 6.35.4; Daly, Polybius 6.35.4; Daly, Cannae, pp Cannae, pp. 1334.

70. This reconstruction largely taken from Goldsworthy, This reconstruction largely taken from Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, p. 82; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, pp. 567; Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 15. See also Polybius, 3.72, 113, 6.31; Livy 34.46, 44.36.

CHAPTER III: CARTHAGE.

1. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 132.

2. F. N. Pryce, in H. H. Scullard, F. N. Pryce, in H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC, fourth edition (London: Routledge, 1980), pp. 1634.

3. Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard, Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage at the Time of Hannibal Daily Life in Carthage at the Time of Hannibal, transl. A. E. Foster (New York: Macmillan, 1961), pp. 1545.

4. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage Carthage, p. 111.

5. Ibid., p. 205. Ibid., p. 205.

6. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 27.

7. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage Carthage, p. 43.

8. C. R. Whittaker, "Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries," in P.D.A. Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker, eds. C. R. Whittaker, "Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries," in P.D.A. Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker, eds. Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History Imperialism in the Ancient World: The Cambridge University Research Seminar in Ancient History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 59. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 59.

9. Charles-Picard, Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage Daily Life in Carthage, p. 60.

10. Whittaker, "Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries," p. 68. Whittaker, "Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries," p. 68.

11. See for example Charles-Picard, pp. 834; B. D. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," See for example Charles-Picard, pp. 834; B. D. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," Ancient History Ancient History, vol. 19 (1989), p. 88; see B. D. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics, 237218 BC," Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie, vol. 137 (1994), pp. 2656 for a summary of the second line of argumentation.

12. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 29.

13. Charles-Picard, Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage Daily Life in Carthage, pp. 111, 116; Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," p. 267.

14. Ricardo first articulated comparative advantage in his book Ricardo first articulated comparative advantage in his book On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, in AD 1817.

15. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage Carthage, pp. 4046.

16. Ibid., p. 140. The mendacious Cato may have picked the fig from his own trees. Ibid., p. 140. The mendacious Cato may have picked the fig from his own trees.

17. See Appian, See Appian, Libyca Libyca, 95, for a description.

18. Scullard, Scullard, Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p. 117.

19. Diodorus Siculus, 14.77.3. Diodorus Siculus, 14.77.3.

20. Whittaker, "Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries," pp. 8990. Whittaker, "Carthaginian Imperialism in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries," pp. 8990.

21. Lazenby, Lazenby, The First Punic War The First Punic War, p. 25. There is evidence that Liby-Phoenicians were liable for military service abroad, but this does not seem to have generally been true across the empire.

22. For a differing interpretation of the relationships see Lazenby, For a differing interpretation of the relationships see Lazenby, The First Punic War The First Punic War, p. 21; Lancel, Carthage, p Carthage, p. 116; and Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 30.

23. Colette and Gilbert Charles-Picard, Colette and Gilbert Charles-Picard, Vie et Mort de Carthage Vie et Mort de Carthage (Paris: Hachette, 1970), p. 307. (Paris: Hachette, 1970), p. 307.

24. Polybius, 1.82.12. Polybius, 1.82.12.

25. B. H. Warmington, B. H. Warmington, Carthage Carthage (New York: Praeger, 1960), p. 124, estimates that the total population including slaves, women, and children was probably never higher than four hundred thousand. On this basis, it seems reasonable that somewhat more than one in four would be capable of military service. (New York: Praeger, 1960), p. 124, estimates that the total population including slaves, women, and children was probably never higher than four hundred thousand. On this basis, it seems reasonable that somewhat more than one in four would be capable of military service.

26. Polybius 1.75.12. Polybius 1.75.12.

27. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 20. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 20.

28. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 125.

29. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 1767; Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage, p Daily Life in Carthage, p. 98.

30. Head, Head, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars, p. 49.

31. Lazenby, Lazenby, The First Punic War, p The First Punic War, p. 27.

32. Modern sources are somewhat divided on the subject, but in the absence of more evidence, many a.s.sume citizens and allied Liby-Phoenicians rowed in the fleet. See for example B. D. Hoyos, "Hannibal: What Kind of Genius," Modern sources are somewhat divided on the subject, but in the absence of more evidence, many a.s.sume citizens and allied Liby-Phoenicians rowed in the fleet. See for example B. D. Hoyos, "Hannibal: What Kind of Genius," Greece and Rome Greece and Rome, vol. 30, no. 2 (October 1983), p. 172; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 312.

33. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 312.

34. Rankov, "The Second Punic War at Sea," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds. Rankov, "The Second Punic War at Sea," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds. The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p. 50.

35. Livy, 30.43.1213. Livy, 30.43.1213.

36. Plutarch, Plutarch, Pyrrhus Pyrrhus, 24.

37. Lazenby, Lazenby, The First Punic War, p The First Punic War, p. 35.

38. See for example Harris, See for example Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, p. 182ff.

39. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal, pp Hannibal, pp. 45; Lancel, Carthage, p Carthage, p. 365.

40. Polybius, 1.20.12. Polybius, 1.20.12.

41. Lazenby, Lazenby, The First Punic War, pp The First Punic War, pp. 712.

42. Ibid, p. 81. Ibid, p. 81.

43. Cape Bon is the modern terminology. Cape Bon is the modern terminology.

44. Lazenby, Lazenby, The First Punic War, p The First Punic War, p. 110.

45. Diodorus, 23.4.1; Polybius, 1.17.46; Diodorus, 23.8.1; Polybius, 1.38.15; 1.44.12. Diodorus, 23.4.1; Polybius, 1.17.46; Diodorus, 23.8.1; Polybius, 1.38.15; 1.44.12.

46. Tenney Frank, Tenney Frank, Cambridge Ancient History Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1928), p. 685.

47. Lazenby, Lazenby, The First Punic War, p The First Punic War, p. 114.

48. Appian, Appian, History of Rome: History of Rome: Book 6: Book 6: The Wars in Spain The Wars in Spain, 4; Lazenby, The First Punic War, p The First Punic War, p. 144.

49. Since Hannibal was nine when his father brought him to Spain in 237, it seems likely that he was born around the time his father left for Sicily. Since Hannibal was nine when his father brought him to Spain in 237, it seems likely that he was born around the time his father left for Sicily.

50. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 87. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 87.

51. Polybius, 1.56.3. Polybius, 1.56.3.

52. Ibid., 1.59.7. Ibid., 1.59.7.

53. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 10; C. Nepos, Hamilcar Hamilcar, 1.5.

54. Lazenby Lazenby (The First Punic War, p (The First Punic War, p. 164) is quite typical when he says: "We have no census-returns from Carthage, of course, ... but ... their losses cannot have been high."

55. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 88. Hoyos, "Hannibal's War: Illusions and Ironies," p. 88.

56. Appian, Appian, The Wars in Spain The Wars in Spain, 4.

57. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," pp. 2501. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," pp. 2501.

58. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 1356.

59. Polybius, 1.72.3. Polybius, 1.72.3.

60. Appian, Appian, The Wars in Spain The Wars in Spain, 4.

61. Nepos, Nepos, Hamilcar Hamilcar, (3.58).

62. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," p. 251. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," p. 251.

63. Polybius, 3.11.57; Livy, 35.19. Polybius, 3.11.57; Livy, 35.19.

64. Prevas, Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p Hannibal Crosses the Alps, p. 41; Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 1456.

65. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," p. 274. Hoyos, "Barcid Proconsuls and Punic Politics," p. 274.

66. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage, p Carthage, p. 379; Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 36.

67. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage, p Carthage, p. 378.

68. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 401.

69. Scullard, Scullard, A History of the Roman World A History of the Roman World, pp. 1967.

CHAPTER IV: HANNIBAL'S WAY.

1. See for example Goldsworthy, See for example Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, pp. 1578.

2. Plutarch, "Fabius Maximus," 6.3; Appian, Plutarch, "Fabius Maximus," 6.3; Appian, Hannibalic War Hannibalic War, 14; 28.