NOTES.

CHAPTER I: TRACES OF WAR.

1. John Prevas, John Prevas, Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of Italy and the Punic Wars Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of Italy and the Punic Wars (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Da Capo Press, 1998), pp. 7374, believes that enough physical evidence of the march existed to personally inspect the route Hannibal took. Similarly, Patrick Hunt of the Stanford Alpine Archaeology Project believes that, unlike Livy, Polybius appears to have known the geography of where Hannibal crossed. (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Da Capo Press, 1998), pp. 7374, believes that enough physical evidence of the march existed to personally inspect the route Hannibal took. Similarly, Patrick Hunt of the Stanford Alpine Archaeology Project believes that, unlike Livy, Polybius appears to have known the geography of where Hannibal crossed.

2. Gregory Daly, Gregory Daly, Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 2034. (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 2034.

3. Mary Beard, cited by Jane Kramer, "Israel, Palestine, and a Tenure Battle," Mary Beard, cited by Jane Kramer, "Israel, Palestine, and a Tenure Battle," The New Yorker The New Yorker, April 14, 2008, p. 50.

4. The inscription first cited in F. Ribbezo, The inscription first cited in F. Ribbezo, Il Carroctodel Sud Il Carroctodel Sud, S. ii, vol. 4.2, February 1951.

5. Adrian Goldsworthy, Adrian Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars (London: Ca.s.sell & Co, 2000), p. 11. (London: Ca.s.sell & Co, 2000), p. 11.

6. Serge Lancel, Serge Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, transl. Antonia Nevill (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1998), p. 29; John Rich, "The Origins of the Second Punic War," in The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal (London: Inst.i.tute of Cla.s.sical Studies, 1996), pp. 4, 32. (London: Inst.i.tute of Cla.s.sical Studies, 1996), pp. 4, 32.

7. Cited in H. H. Scullard, Cited in H. H. Scullard, Scipio Africa.n.u.s: Soldier and Politician Scipio Africa.n.u.s: Soldier and Politician (London: Thames and Hudson, 1970), p. 14. (London: Thames and Hudson, 1970), p. 14.

8. Martin Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," Martin Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen Militargeschichtliche Mitteilungen, vol. 47 (1990), pp. 89.

9. Hans Delbruck, Hans Delbruck, History of the Art of War History of the Art of War, vol. 1, Warfare in Antiquity Warfare in Antiquity (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), p. 311. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), p. 311.

10. J. F. Lazenby, J. F. Lazenby, Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998) (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998) 11. Daniel Mendelsohn, "What Was Herodotus Trying to Tell Us?" Daniel Mendelsohn, "What Was Herodotus Trying to Tell Us?" The New Yorker The New Yorker, April 28, 2008, p. 72.

12. P. G. Walsh, P. G. Walsh, Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), pp. 110 ff., 138ff., and ix. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), pp. 110 ff., 138ff., and ix.

13. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 24.

14. Delbruck, Delbruck, Warfare in Antiquity, pp Warfare in Antiquity, pp. 32831.

15. D. T. McGuire, "History Compressed: The Roman Names of Silius' 'Cannae Episode,'" D. T. McGuire, "History Compressed: The Roman Names of Silius' 'Cannae Episode,'" Latomus Latomus, vol. 54, no. 1 (1995), p. 118.

16. J. F. Lazenby, J. F. Lazenby, The First Punic War: A Military History The First Punic War: A Military History (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 1. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 1.

17. Dating the origins of war will always be dependent upon the exact definition applied to war. Still, the proliferation of walled towns and other signs of warfare in the general region of the Neolithic Middle East around 5500 B.C. provide as good a reference point as is presently available for the first appearance of what would become more or less continuous organized violence. Robert L. O'Connell, Dating the origins of war will always be dependent upon the exact definition applied to war. Still, the proliferation of walled towns and other signs of warfare in the general region of the Neolithic Middle East around 5500 B.C. provide as good a reference point as is presently available for the first appearance of what would become more or less continuous organized violence. Robert L. O'Connell, Ride of the Second Horseman: The Birth and Death of War Ride of the Second Horseman: The Birth and Death of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 734. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 734.

18. Glynn L. Isaac, "Traces of Pleistocene Hunters: An East African Example," in R. B. Lee and I. DeVore, eds., Glynn L. Isaac, "Traces of Pleistocene Hunters: An East African Example," in R. B. Lee and I. DeVore, eds., Man the Hunter Man the Hunter (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1968), p. 259; L.S.B. Leakey, "The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man," (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1968), p. 259; L.S.B. Leakey, "The Predatory Transition from Ape to Man," International Anthropological and Linguistic Review International Anthropological and Linguistic Review, vol. 1, no. 4 (1953), pp. 20113.

19. Dating these devices is difficult since they all are organic and degradable; however, it makes sense to place their origins around the time of Dating these devices is difficult since they all are organic and degradable; however, it makes sense to place their origins around the time of h.o.m.o sapiens h.o.m.o sapiens' so-called great leap forward, around fifty thousand years ago.

20. W. H. McNeill, W. H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society Since A.D. 1000 The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society Since A.D. 1000 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 131; see also W. H. McNeill, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 131; see also W. H. McNeill, Keeping Together in Time: Dance and Drill in Human History Keeping Together in Time: Dance and Drill in Human History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995). (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).

21. M. N. Cohen, M. N. Cohen, The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), pp. 93, 116. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), pp. 93, 116.

22. S. J. Mithen, S. J. Mithen, Thoughtful Foragers: A Study of Prehistoric Decision Making Thoughtful Foragers: A Study of Prehistoric Decision Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chs. 78. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chs. 78.

23. Edward O. Wilson, Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 2423. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 2423.

24. I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Human Ethology Human Ethology (New York: Aldine De Gruyter: 1989), p. 405; Dave Grossman, (New York: Aldine De Gruyter: 1989), p. 405; Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1995), p. xxix. (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1995), p. xxix.

25. For a summary discussion of these characteristics, see O'Connell, For a summary discussion of these characteristics, see O'Connell, Ride of the Second Horseman, pp Ride of the Second Horseman, pp. 367.

26. The Stele of the Vultures from Telloh, Early Dynastic III, is presently located in the Louvre in Paris. The Stele of the Vultures from Telloh, Early Dynastic III, is presently located in the Louvre in Paris.

27. "Gilgamesh and Agga," in J. B. Pritchard, ed., "Gilgamesh and Agga," in J. B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Relating to the Old Testament Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1950), lines 140. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1950), lines 140.

28. "Sargon of Agade," in Pritchard, ed., "Sargon of Agade," in Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Ancient Near Eastern Texts, pp. vvi, 552, 268.

29. M. A. Edey, M. A. Edey, The Sea Traders The Sea Traders (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1974), p. 61. (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1974), p. 61.

30. D. Harden, D. Harden, The Phoenicians The Phoenicians (London: Penguin, 1980), plate 51. (London: Penguin, 1980), plate 51.

31. P. Bartoloni, "Ships and Navigation," in M. Andreose, ed., P. Bartoloni, "Ships and Navigation," in M. Andreose, ed., The Phoenicians The Phoenicians (New York: Abbeville Press, 1988), pp. 724. (New York: Abbeville Press, 1988), pp. 724.

32. S. P. Oakley, "Single Combat in the Roman Republic," S. P. Oakley, "Single Combat in the Roman Republic," The Cla.s.sical Quarterly The Cla.s.sical Quarterly, no. 35 (1985), p. 402.

33. See, for example, See, for example, The Iliad The Iliad 8.174; 11.286; 13.5; 15.50910. 8.174; 11.286; 13.5; 15.50910.

34. The Iliad The Iliad, 2.38587.

35. Livy 1.43. "Servian" after the semi-mythical Servius Tullius. For all references to Livy, I have used Loeb Cla.s.sical Library series (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Livy 1.43. "Servian" after the semi-mythical Servius Tullius. For all references to Livy, I have used Loeb Cla.s.sical Library series (Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

36. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 44, makes this point about the wars between Rome and Carthage, but with rare exceptions, such as fights over key mountain pa.s.ses and other choke points, the observation seems true of the whole strategic environment.

37. Agathocles of Syracuse's victorious troops, after they had defeated the Carthaginians in 310 B.C., found thousands of pairs of handcuffs in the enemy's camp. Serge Lancel, Agathocles of Syracuse's victorious troops, after they had defeated the Carthaginians in 310 B.C., found thousands of pairs of handcuffs in the enemy's camp. Serge Lancel, Carthage: A History Carthage: A History, transl. Antonia Nevill (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1995), p. 278; see also Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 186.

38. The Melian Dialogue. Thucydides, The Melian Dialogue. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War History of the Peloponnesian War (5.84116). (5.84116).

39. H. H. Scullard, H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 142. (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 142.

CHAPTER II: ROME.

1. Adrian Goldsworthy, Adrian Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War: 100 BCAD 200 The Roman Army at War: 100 BCAD 200 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 127. (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 127.

2. Daly, Daly, Cannae, p Cannae, p. 29; Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 104; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, pp Hannibal's War, pp. 756.

3. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, pp. 34, 75.

4. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 57.

5. Lazenby Lazenby (Hannibal's War (Hannibal's War, p. 17) states that this was the major difference between Rome and Carthage, which was a nation of traders. This is basically a correct statement but one in need of amplification.

6. Arnold J. Toynbee, Arnold J. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), vol. 2, chs. 1, 2, and 6. (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), vol. 2, chs. 1, 2, and 6.

7. M. I. Finley, M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York: Viking Press, 1980), p. 81; Tim Cornell, "Hannibal's Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., (New York: Viking Press, 1980), p. 81; Tim Cornell, "Hannibal's Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p. 98.

8. c.u.mulative estimates of ancient numbers are always difficult, but such figures seem reasonable in light of the fact that in 211 the population of Capua, the second-largest city in Italy, was enslaved and two years later the Romans sold thirty thousand Tarentines. c.u.mulative estimates of ancient numbers are always difficult, but such figures seem reasonable in light of the fact that in 211 the population of Capua, the second-largest city in Italy, was enslaved and two years later the Romans sold thirty thousand Tarentines.

9. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 2578.

10. Ibid. Ibid.

11. H. H. Scullard, H. H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC, fourth edition (London: Routledge, 1980), chs. 3, 5; pp. 1289.

12. See for example Livy 21.63.2ff, in which he states that Flaminius was hated by the n.o.bility, or 22.25.19 when he disparagingly calls Varro the son of a butcher. See for example Livy 21.63.2ff, in which he states that Flaminius was hated by the n.o.bility, or 22.25.19 when he disparagingly calls Varro the son of a butcher.

13. Scullard, Scullard, Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p. 162.

14. Adrian Goldsworthy, Adrian Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae (London: Ca.s.sell, 2004), p. 63; Goldsworthy, (London: Ca.s.sell, 2004), p. 63; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, pp. 423.

15. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 4.

16. Scullard, Scullard, A History of the Roman World A History of the Roman World, p. 127.

17. William V. Harris, William V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome: 32770 B.C War and Imperialism in Republican Rome: 32770 B.C. (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1979), chs. 1 and 2; John Rich, "The Origins of the Second Punic War," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, pp The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, pp. 189.

18. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 57.

19. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 40.

20. Scullard, Scullard, A History of the Roman World A History of the Roman World, p. 80.

21. E. S. Staveley, E. S. Staveley, Historia Historia, vol. 5 (1956), p. 101ff.

22. Theodore A. Dodge, Theodore A. Dodge, Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 BC, with a Detailed Account of the Second Punic War Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 BC, with a Detailed Account of the Second Punic War (London: Greenhill Books, 1994), p. 42. (London: Greenhill Books, 1994), p. 42.

23. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 45 The Punic Wars, p. 45.

24. See for example Scullard, See for example Scullard, A History of the Roman World A History of the Roman World, pp. 3656.

25. Grossman, Grossman, On Killing, pp On Killing, pp. 1203.

26. James Grout, "Gladiators," James Grout, "Gladiators," Encyclopaedia Romana Encyclopaedia Romana ( (penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/ gladiators.html).

27. J. E. Lendon, J. E. Lendon, Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Cla.s.sical Antiquity Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Cla.s.sical Antiquity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 176. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 176.

28. Scullard, Scullard, A History of the Roman World A History of the Roman World, pp. 1469.

29. B. W. Jones, "Rome's Relationship with Carthage: A Study of Aggression," B. W. Jones, "Rome's Relationship with Carthage: A Study of Aggression," The Cla.s.sical Bulletin The Cla.s.sical Bulletin, vol. 9 (1972), p. 28.

30. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War, p The Roman Army at War, p. 109.

31. E. Badian, E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae (25470 B.C.) Foreign Clientelae (25470 B.C.) (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1958), pp. 67, 154. (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1958), pp. 67, 154.

32. Scullard, Scullard, A History of the Roman World, p A History of the Roman World, p. 363.

33. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, pp. 4950.

34. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 45.

35. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 11, 234. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," pp. 11, 234.

36. Oakley, "Single Combat in the Roman Republic," p. 403. Oakley, "Single Combat in the Roman Republic," p. 403.

37. Lendon, Lendon, Soldiers and Ghosts, p Soldiers and Ghosts, p. 1778.

38. Sall.u.s.t, Sall.u.s.t, Bellum Catilinae (51.38); Bellum Catilinae (51.38); op. cit. Alexander Zhmodikov, "The Roman Heavy Infantrymen in Battle," op. cit. Alexander Zhmodikov, "The Roman Heavy Infantrymen in Battle," Historia Historia, vol. 49, no. 1 (2000), pp. 724.

39. Duncan Head, Duncan Head, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 to 146 BC Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars: 359 to 146 BC (Goring-by-Sea, UK: Wargames Research Group, 1982), p. 157. (Goring-by-Sea, UK: Wargames Research Group, 1982), p. 157.

40. M. C. Bishop and J. C. Coulston, M. C. Bishop and J. C. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment Roman Military Equipment (London: Batsford, 1993), p. 50. (London: Batsford, 1993), p. 50.

41. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 47.

42. Livy 31.34.46 describes graphically the nature of such wounds inflicted during the Second Macedonian War: "When they had seen bodies chopped to pieces by the Spanish sword, arms torn away, shoulders and all, or heads separated from bodies ... or vitals laid open ... they realized in a general panic with what weapons, and what men they had to fight." Livy 31.34.46 describes graphically the nature of such wounds inflicted during the Second Macedonian War: "When they had seen bodies chopped to pieces by the Spanish sword, arms torn away, shoulders and all, or heads separated from bodies ... or vitals laid open ... they realized in a general panic with what weapons, and what men they had to fight."

43. Flavius Vegetius Renatus, "The Military Inst.i.tutions of the Romans," in Flavius Vegetius Renatus, "The Military Inst.i.tutions of the Romans," in The Roots of Strategy The Roots of Strategy (Harrisburg, Penn., 1940), pp. 856 (1.12). (Harrisburg, Penn., 1940), pp. 856 (1.12).

44. See Goldsworthy, See Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, pp. 1357.

45. Peter Connolly, Peter Connolly, Greece and Rome at War Greece and Rome at War (revised ed.) (London: Greenhill Books, 1998), p. 131; Bishop and Coulston, (revised ed.) (London: Greenhill Books, 1998), p. 131; Bishop and Coulston, Roman Military Equipment Roman Military Equipment, pp. 589.

46. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, p. 68; Polybius (6.23.13).

47. Daly, Daly, Cannae Cannae, pp. 6470.

48. Philip Sabin, "The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., Philip Sabin, "The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War," in Cornell, Rankov, and Sabin, eds., The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal, p. 74.

49. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 15. Samuels, "The Reality of Cannae," p. 15.