Part 10
3. Ibid., p. 123.
4. Ibid., p. 122.
5. See Kinney, "The Iconography of the Ivory Diptych," pp. 7482, for the wide variety of contexts in which such torches have been found.
6. Ibid., pp. 6773, for the contexts in which representations of pietas pietas have been found. have been found.
7. For the full text of the letters and background details, see B. Croke and J. Harries, Religious Conflict in Fourth-Century Rome Religious Conflict in Fourth-Century Rome (Sydney, 1982), chap. 2, "The Debate on the Altar of Victory, A.D. 384." Earlier the pagan orator Themistius had used a similar argument in an (Sydney, 1982), chap. 2, "The Debate on the Altar of Victory, A.D. 384." Earlier the pagan orator Themistius had used a similar argument in an Appealing Oration Appealing Oration to the emperor Valens (36478), who had tried to uphold h.o.m.oean Christianity against its rivals. Themistius told Valens to the emperor Valens (36478), who had tried to uphold h.o.m.oean Christianity against its rivals. Themistius told Valens that he ought not to be surprised at the difference of judgement in religious questions among Christians; inasmuch as that the discrepancy was trifling when compared to the mult.i.tude of conflicting opinions current among the heathen; for these amount to above three hundred, that dissensions occurred was an inevitable consequence of this disagreement, but that G.o.d would be more glorified by a diversity of sentiment, and the greatness of his majesty be more venerated from the fact of its not being easy to have knowledge of him.
The oration is quoted in Socrates, Ecclesiastical History, Ecclesiastical History, 4, 32. 4, 32.
8. For the argument that Praetextatus is the man commemorated, see Kiilerich, "A Different Interpretation," pp. 12627, from which the quotation in the next paragraph has been taken. The quotation about Praetextatus' intellectual qualities, which was recorded by one Macrobius, can be found in W. Liebeschuetz, "The Significance of the Speech of Praetextatus," in P. Athana.s.siadi and M. Frede, eds., Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity (Oxford, 1999), p. 196. Praetextatus' funerary monument has survived (in the Capitoline Museum in Rome). It includes details of the many cults with which he was a.s.sociated. The dedication on it to his wife, Paulina, is worth quoting to give a flavour of pagan marriage in late antiquity. (Oxford, 1999), p. 196. Praetextatus' funerary monument has survived (in the Capitoline Museum in Rome). It includes details of the many cults with which he was a.s.sociated. The dedication on it to his wife, Paulina, is worth quoting to give a flavour of pagan marriage in late antiquity.
Paulina, partner of my heart, nurse of modesty, bond of chast.i.ty, pure love and loyalty produced in heaven, to whom I have entrusted the deep secrets of my heart, gift of the G.o.ds who bind our marriage couch with friendly and modest ties; by the devotion of a mother, the bond of a sister, the modesty of a daughter, and by all the loyalty friends show, we are united by the custom of age, the pact of consecration, by the yoke of the marriage vow and perfect harmony, helpmate of your husband, loving, adoring, devoted.
Paulina's own tribute to her husband is inscribed on the back of the monument. Quoted in Croke and Harries, Religious Conflict, Religious Conflict, pp. 1067. pp. 1067.
9. See Jerome's Letter XXII in Select Letters of St. Jerome, Select Letters of St. Jerome, trans. F. A. Wright (London, 1933). trans. F. A. Wright (London, 1933).
10. See J. Kelly, Jerome Jerome (London, 1975), p. 96. Jerome makes the point in his Letter XXIV. (London, 1975), p. 96. Jerome makes the point in his Letter XXIV.
11. Quoted in P. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church in the Age of Jerome and Ca.s.sian Jerome and Ca.s.sian (Oxford, 1978), p. 119. (Oxford, 1978), p. 119.
12. Quoted in R. Smith, Julian's G.o.ds: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought Julian's G.o.ds: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian the Apostate and Action of Julian the Apostate (London and New York, 1995), p. 224. There is some dispute over the origin and date of this anonymous poem, but it is possibly an authentic plea to the emperor Julian. (London and New York, 1995), p. 224. There is some dispute over the origin and date of this anonymous poem, but it is possibly an authentic plea to the emperor Julian.
16.
1. Quoted in J. Kelly, Jerome Jerome (London, 1975), p. 132. (London, 1975), p. 132.
2. Phaedo 66 C; quoted in J. Dillon, "Rejecting the Body, Redefining the Body: Some Remarks on the Development of Platonist Asceticism," in V. Wimbush and R. Valantasis, eds., Asceticism Asceticism (New York and Oxford, 1995). (New York and Oxford, 1995).
3. The quotation is from P. Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women and s.e.xual Renunciation in Early Christianity s.e.xual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York, 1988; London, 1989), p. 19. (New York, 1988; London, 1989), p. 19.
4. Quoted in G. Clark, "Women and Asceticism in Late Antiquity: The Reversal of Status and Gender," in Wimbush and Valantasis, eds., Asceticism, Asceticism, p. 43. p. 43.
5. Quotations from his Letter XXII.
6. R. A. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity The End of Ancient Christianity (Cambridge, 1990), p. 166. (Cambridge, 1990), p. 166.
7. P. Brown, "Asceticism: Pagan and Christian," in A. Cameron and P. Garnsey, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. XIII (Cambridge, 1998), p. 618. vol. XIII (Cambridge, 1998), p. 618.
8. The quotation from Epictetus is from his Discourses Discourses 4.10.16. The other two quotations are taken from Brown, 4.10.16. The other two quotations are taken from Brown, The Body and Society, The Body and Society, pp. 375 and 309. Aristotle's views on moderation between two extremes are also important here. See his pp. 375 and 309. Aristotle's views on moderation between two extremes are also important here. See his Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Ethics II. 67 and comments on the theme in R. Sorabji, II. 67 and comments on the theme in R. Sorabji, Emotion Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation (Oxford, 2000), chap. 14, "The Traditions of Moderation and Eradication." (Oxford, 2000), chap. 14, "The Traditions of Moderation and Eradication."
9. See G. Stroumsa, Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Christianity Christianity (Tubingen, 1999), chap. 10, " (Tubingen, 1999), chap. 10, "Caro Salutis Cardo: Shaping the Person in Early Christian Thought," especially pp. 17781. There are immense philosophical problems about what is meant by "will" here. See, as an introduction, C. Kahn, "Discovering the Will: From Aristotle to Augustine," in J. M. Dillon and A. A. Long, eds., Shaping the Person in Early Christian Thought," especially pp. 17781. There are immense philosophical problems about what is meant by "will" here. See, as an introduction, C. Kahn, "Discovering the Will: From Aristotle to Augustine," in J. M. Dillon and A. A. Long, eds., The Question of Eclecticism: Studies in Later Greek Philosophy The Question of Eclecticism: Studies in Later Greek Philosophy (Berkeley and London, 1988). (Berkeley and London, 1988).
10. P. Brown, "Asceticism: Pagan and Christian," in Cameron and Garnsey, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. XIII, p. 616. vol. XIII, p. 616.
11. See A. Cameron, Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire (Berkeley and London, 1991), p. 153. (Berkeley and London, 1991), p. 153.
12. Brown, "Asceticism," p. 607. The quotation comes from section 67 of the Life of Anthony Life of Anthony.
13. Eunapius of Sardis, Vitae Sophistarium vi.11 (c. 395); quoted in P. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church in the Age of Jerome and Ca.s.sian Ascetics, Authority and the Church in the Age of Jerome and Ca.s.sian (Oxford, 1978), p. 9. (Oxford, 1978), p. 9.
14. Quoted in Clark, "Women and Asceticism," pp. 34 and 43.
15. Brown, The Body and Society, The Body and Society, p. 370. p. 370.
16. Quoted on p. xix of M. Warner, Alone of All Her s.e.x Alone of All Her s.e.x (London, 1985). (London, 1985).
17. See H. Bettenson, The Early Christian Fathers The Early Christian Fathers (Oxford, 1956), pp. 8283 for Irenaeus' views and pp. 12627 for Tertullian's. (Oxford, 1956), pp. 8283 for Irenaeus' views and pp. 12627 for Tertullian's.
18. Kelly, Jerome, Jerome, p. 301. p. 301.
19. Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople Christian Constantinople (London and New York, 1994). As Limberis shows, in the great hymn to Mary, the Akathistos Hymn, Mary absorbed many of the epithets used of both Rhea and another ancient G.o.ddess, Hecate. For instance, Hecate is virgin but also a protecting mother (one of her most common roles was as a carer for orphans), and the Virgin Mary is acclaimed in the same role in the hymn. Hecate is also seen as an initiator into divine knowledge, and Mary is hailed as "O knowledge, superseding the wise," the one "who enlightens the minds of believers" and "who extricates us from the depths of ignorance." (London and New York, 1994). As Limberis shows, in the great hymn to Mary, the Akathistos Hymn, Mary absorbed many of the epithets used of both Rhea and another ancient G.o.ddess, Hecate. For instance, Hecate is virgin but also a protecting mother (one of her most common roles was as a carer for orphans), and the Virgin Mary is acclaimed in the same role in the hymn. Hecate is also seen as an initiator into divine knowledge, and Mary is hailed as "O knowledge, superseding the wise," the one "who enlightens the minds of believers" and "who extricates us from the depths of ignorance."
20. For further examples of the adoption of Isis' attributes by Mary, see R. Witt, Isis in the Greco-Roman World Isis in the Greco-Roman World (London, 1971), pp. 27273. (London, 1971), pp. 27273.
21. Warner, Alone of All Her s.e.x, Alone of All Her s.e.x, p. 58. p. 58.
22. Kelly, Jerome, pp. 18087, for Jerome's views on Jovinian. P. Brown, "Christianisation and Religious Conflict," in Cameron and Garnsey, eds., The The Cambridge Ancient History, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. XIII, p. 638, for Jovinian's flogging in Rome. Tertullian's view is quoted in Jaroslav Pelikan, vol. XIII, p. 638, for Jovinian's flogging in Rome. Tertullian's view is quoted in Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition, The Christian Tradition, vol. 1 (Chicago and London, 1971), p. 288. vol. 1 (Chicago and London, 1971), p. 288.
23. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, p. 179. p. 179.
24. Kelly, Jerome, Jerome, p. 99. p. 99.
25. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, p. 29. p. 29.
26. Ibid., p. 152.
27. Kallistos Ware "The Way of the Ascetics, Negative or Affirmative?" in Wimbush and Valantasis, Asceticism, Asceticism, p. 7. See also the account of the life of St. Theodore of Sykeon, pp. 12250 in vol. 2 of S. Mitch.e.l.l, Anatolia: Land, Men and p. 7. See also the account of the life of St. Theodore of Sykeon, pp. 12250 in vol. 2 of S. Mitch.e.l.l, Anatolia: Land, Men and G.o.ds in Asia Minor G.o.ds in Asia Minor (Oxford, 1993). Theodore specialized in cures and exorcisms. (Oxford, 1993). Theodore specialized in cures and exorcisms.
28. The French sociologist Emile Durkheim spotted the problem.
Imagine a society of saints, a perfect cloister of exemplary individuals. Crimes, properly so called, will be there unknown; but faults which appear venial to the layman will create the same scandal there that the ordinary offence does in ordinary consciousness. If, then, this society has the power to judge and punish, it will define these acts as criminal and judge them as such.
From Emile Durkheim, Rules of Sociological Method, Rules of Sociological Method, Eng. trans. (Glencoe, Ill., 1950). Eng. trans. (Glencoe, Ill., 1950).
29. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, p. 187. p. 187.
30. Ibid., p. 49.
31. S. Elm, Virgins of G.o.d (Oxford, 1994), p. 63.
32. Ibid., p. 69.
33. Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, pp. 19596. pp. 19596.
34. Ibid., p. 55.
35. Ibid., p. 220.
36. Ibid., p. 151, and one might mention the modern example of the late Cardinal Basil Hume, who followed the same path.
37. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity, The End of Ancient Christianity, p. 197. p. 197.
38. Quoted in Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, Ascetics, Authority and the Church, p. 105. p. 105.
39. Quoted in R. MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries Eighth Centuries (New Haven and London, 1997), p. 16. (New Haven and London, 1997), p. 16.
40. Seneca, Letter Lx.x.x, 34.
41. Ambrose, Expositio in Psalmum 118 Expositio in Psalmum 118, 4.22; quoted in R. F. Newbould, "Personality Structure and Response to Adversity in Early Christian Hagiography," Numen Numen x.x.xI (1984): 199. x.x.xI (1984): 199.
42. William James' book originated as the Gifford Lectures delivered in Edinburgh in 19012 and was published for the first time in 1902. The quotation comes from lecture 13.
17.
1. Eusebius: Life of Constantine, ed. A. Cameron and S. Hall (Oxford, 1999), 3:15.
2. See the introduction ibid., especially pp. 3439.
3. Quoted in E. M. Pickman, The Mind of Latin Christendom The Mind of Latin Christendom (New York, 1937), p. 545. (New York, 1937), p. 545.
4. See C. Kelly, "Emperors, Government and Bureaucracy," in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. XIII, ed. A. Cameron and P. Garnsey (Cambridge, 1998), p. 141.
5. Ibid., p. 143.
6. Ibid., p. 142.
7. For a full account of the affair, see J. Kelly, Golden Mouth: The Story of Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chrysostom John Chrysostom (London, 1995), chap. 6. (London, 1995), chap. 6.
8. Quoted in R. MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries Eighth Centuries (New Haven and London, 1997), p. 27. (New Haven and London, 1997), p. 27.
9. As in The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. XIII, pp. 63839. vol. XIII, pp. 63839.
10. Ibid., p. 642.
11. I have relied heavily on J. Kelly, Golden Mouth, Golden Mouth, for my account of John Chrysostom's life, but see also J. Liebeschuetz, for my account of John Chrysostom's life, but see also J. Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church and State in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom Church and State in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom (Oxford, 1990), part 3 in particular. (Oxford, 1990), part 3 in particular.
12. J. Kelly, Golden Mouth, Golden Mouth, pp. 4546, for Jerome's views on Paul and virginity. The quotation comes from Hubart Richards, pp. 4546, for Jerome's views on Paul and virginity. The quotation comes from Hubart Richards, St. Paul and His Epistles: A St. Paul and His Epistles: A New Introduction New Introduction (London, 1979). See now Margaret Mitch.e.l.l, (London, 1979). See now Margaret Mitch.e.l.l, The Heavenly The Heavenly Trumpet: John Chrysostom and the Art of Pauline Interpretation Trumpet: John Chrysostom and the Art of Pauline Interpretation (Tubingen, 2000), for an a.n.a.lysis of John's att.i.tude toward Paul. (Tubingen, 2000), for an a.n.a.lysis of John's att.i.tude toward Paul.
13. J. Kelly, Golden Mouth, Golden Mouth, pp. 9798. The "silver chamber pot" quotation comes from Liebeschuetz, pp. 9798. The "silver chamber pot" quotation comes from Liebeschuetz, Barbarians and Bishops, Barbarians and Bishops, p. 176. p. 176.
14. J. Kelly, Golden Mouth, Golden Mouth, pp. 6266, for a survey of the sermons. The fullest a.n.a.lysis is to be found in R. L. Wilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and pp. 6266, for a survey of the sermons. The fullest a.n.a.lysis is to be found in R. L. Wilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and Reality in the Late Fourth Century Reality in the Late Fourth Century (Berkeley and London, 1983). There is useful background information (relating John's sermons to earlier anti-Judaism) in chap. 8 of G. Stroumsa, (Berkeley and London, 1983). There is useful background information (relating John's sermons to earlier anti-Judaism) in chap. 8 of G. Stroumsa, Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Christianity Christianity (Tubingen, 1999). (Tubingen, 1999).
15. For the conflict between John Chrysostom and the emperor's views of the church, see Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople Christian Constantinople (London and New York, 1994), pp. 3740. Limberis sees the conflict as one not just of personalities but of irreconcilable differences over the degree to which the church should submit to the state. Kelly considers the issues surrounding the intervention in Asia Minor in (London and New York, 1994), pp. 3740. Limberis sees the conflict as one not just of personalities but of irreconcilable differences over the degree to which the church should submit to the state. Kelly considers the issues surrounding the intervention in Asia Minor in Golden Mouth, Golden Mouth, pp. 17880. pp. 17880.
16. Despite their unruliness, the loyalty of the crowds was eventually rewarded. In 438, the emperor Theodosius II, anxious to calm tensions within the church, ordered the return of John's body to Constantinople. It was received with great ceremony, although whether John would have approved of his resting place, in the church of the Holy Apostles close to the bodies of Arcadius and Eudoxia, is another matter. Even this was not his final grave-his body was one of the many relics stolen by the Venetians and the Crusaders after their sack of the city in 1204 and is reputedly now in St. Peter's in Rome.
17. For the controversy and its main protagonists I have drawn on the excellent accounts given by F. Young in her From Nicaea to Chalcedon From Nicaea to Chalcedon (London, 1993), chap. 5, and J. Pelikan, (London, 1993), chap. 5, and J. Pelikan, The Christian Tradition, The Christian Tradition, vol. 1 (Chicago and London, 1971), chap. 5, "The Person of the G.o.d-Man." The complex philosophical problems involved are also dissected by C. Stead in chap. 17, "Two Natures United," of his Philosophy in vol. 1 (Chicago and London, 1971), chap. 5, "The Person of the G.o.d-Man." The complex philosophical problems involved are also dissected by C. Stead in chap. 17, "Two Natures United," of his Philosophy in Christian Antiquity Christian Antiquity (Cambridge, 1994). There is much in this chapter about the ingenuity of the theologians. How could two natures, divine and mortal, which were opposites, possibly be combined? What physical a.n.a.logy might be used? Were they like a pile of beans and peas, materially separate from each other even when mingled, or two coexisting ent.i.ties that maintain their ident.i.ties like heat in a piece of iron, or did they lost their ident.i.ty in each other, like tin and copper in bronze (an a.n.a.logy drawn from Stoic physics)? (Cambridge, 1994). There is much in this chapter about the ingenuity of the theologians. How could two natures, divine and mortal, which were opposites, possibly be combined? What physical a.n.a.logy might be used? Were they like a pile of beans and peas, materially separate from each other even when mingled, or two coexisting ent.i.ties that maintain their ident.i.ties like heat in a piece of iron, or did they lost their ident.i.ty in each other, like tin and copper in bronze (an a.n.a.logy drawn from Stoic physics)?
18. Augustine, Confessions Confessions 7:19. Adoptionism had an important revival in Spain as late as the eighth century. 7:19. Adoptionism had an important revival in Spain as late as the eighth century.
19. There are short historical accounts of the Council of Ephesus and that at Chalcedon in the encyclopaedia section of G. W. Bowersock, P. Brown and O. Grabar, eds., Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postcla.s.sical World Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postcla.s.sical World (Cambridge, Ma.s.s., and London, 1999). See also the comments on Chalcedon by R. Lim in his (Cambridge, Ma.s.s., and London, 1999). See also the comments on Chalcedon by R. Lim in his Public Public Disputation, Power, and Social Order in Late Antiquity Disputation, Power, and Social Order in Late Antiquity (Berkeley and London, 1995), pp. 22426. (Berkeley and London, 1995), pp. 22426.
20. The quotation on Leo's role comes from J. Herrin, The Formation of The Formation of Christendom Christendom (Oxford, 1987), p. 103. While the council provided a formulation of co-existence of the two natures, it did not, perhaps wisely, try to suggest (Oxford, 1987), p. 103. While the council provided a formulation of co-existence of the two natures, it did not, perhaps wisely, try to suggest how how they co-existed, and the debate over the two natures of Christ was "acted out" when Christ had to be portrayed on the cross. H. Belting, they co-existed, and the debate over the two natures of Christ was "acted out" when Christ had to be portrayed on the cross. H. Belting, Likeness and Presence: A Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Before the Era of Art, History of the Image Before the Era of Art, trans. E. Jephcott (Chicago and London, 1994), poses the question (p. 102): "Who was it who hung on the Cross? The man Jesus or only G.o.d or both in one. And who, if anyone, died on the Cross? If Jesus is shown dead does this not risk falling into the heresy of suggesting that G.o.d died? If he is shown alive to what extent is it right to show his suffering?" There were clearly inhibitions about showing Christ as dead. The earliest known depiction is believed to be one from the ninth century in the monastery of St. Catherine in the Sinai desert. trans. E. Jephcott (Chicago and London, 1994), poses the question (p. 102): "Who was it who hung on the Cross? The man Jesus or only G.o.d or both in one. And who, if anyone, died on the Cross? If Jesus is shown dead does this not risk falling into the heresy of suggesting that G.o.d died? If he is shown alive to what extent is it right to show his suffering?" There were clearly inhibitions about showing Christ as dead. The earliest known depiction is believed to be one from the ninth century in the monastery of St. Catherine in the Sinai desert.
Stead, Philosophy in Christian Antiquity, Philosophy in Christian Antiquity, pp. 19394, sums up the Council of Chalcedon as follows: pp. 19394, sums up the Council of Chalcedon as follows: I take the view that the Chalcedonian definition was a fairly limited definition; it was a statement of the conditions that needed to be met, within a given horizon of thought, for a satisfactory doctrine of Christ; it did not amount to a positive solution . . . My case is that the problem could not then be solved because too many issues were simultaneously in question, some of them matters of open controversy, some of them undetected a.s.sumptions and inconsistencies.
He then goes on to try to sort some of these out. This is, of course, the essential difficulty in Christian theology, finding firm foundations on which to build coherent doctrine.
21. G. W. Bowersock, h.e.l.lenism in Late Antiquity (Ann Arbor, 1990), pp. 1719.
22. P. Brown, "Christianisation and Religious Conflict," in Cameron and Garnsey, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. XIII, p. 660. On Paulinus there is now an outstanding biography, which ranges far wider than just the life of its subject: D. Trout, vol. XIII, p. 660. On Paulinus there is now an outstanding biography, which ranges far wider than just the life of its subject: D. Trout, Paulinus of Nola: Life, Letters, and Poems Paulinus of Nola: Life, Letters, and Poems (Berkeley and London, 1999). The sacrifice of two hogs and a heifer at St. Felix's shrine is recounted in a poem of Paulinus written in 406 and described by Trout, p. 179. (Berkeley and London, 1999). The sacrifice of two hogs and a heifer at St. Felix's shrine is recounted in a poem of Paulinus written in 406 and described by Trout, p. 179.
23. MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism, p. 121.
24. Ibid., p. 116.
25. Ibid., p. 124.
26. Ibid., p. 121.
27. Bowersock, h.e.l.lenism in Late Antiquity, h.e.l.lenism in Late Antiquity, pp. 4952, with ill.u.s.trations. pp. 4952, with ill.u.s.trations.
28. MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism, pp. 4345.
29. Story recounted in Brown, "Christianisation and Religious Conflict," pp. 64849.
30. N. de Lange, Atlas of the Jewish World Atlas of the Jewish World (Oxford, 1984), p. 34. (Oxford, 1984), p. 34.
31. MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism, pp. 1314.
32. Ibid., p. 66.
33. Ibid., p. 60.
