Most wasabi served in restaurants is in fact ordinary dried horseradish powder, colored green and reconst.i.tuted with water. It has a similar pungency, but little else in common with true wasabi. When the fresh stem is grated a few minutes before the meal, it releases more than 20 enzyme-generated volatiles, some pungent, some oniony, some green, some even sweet.

Dealing with an Overdose of Wasabi or HorseradishThough a mouthful of food overdosed with chilli can be painful, it's not as startling as too much horseradish or wasabi, whose volatile irritants can quickly get into the airstream and cause a bout of coughing or choking. These reactions can be minimized by remembering to breathe out through the mouth - sparing the nasal pa.s.sages - and breathing in through the nose, to avoid drawing irritants from the mouth into the lungs.

The Bean Family: Licorice And Fenugreek Licorice Licorice comes from the roots of Licorice comes from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Glycyrrhiza glabra, a native of southwest Asia. Its English name is a much-altered version of its genus name, which derives from the Greek for "sweet root." The woody roots of this shrub are remarkable for containing a steroid-like chemical, glycyrrhizic acid, that is 50150 times sweeter than table sugar. The water extract of the roots contains many different compounds, including sugars and amino acids, which undergo flavor-and pigment-producing browning reactions with each other when the extract is concentrated. Licorice extracts are available as dark syrups, blocks, or powders, and are used in various confections, to give color and flavor to dark beers, porter, and stout, and to flavor tobacco for cigars, cigarettes, and chewing. Many licorice candies are flavored with anise-like anethole (p. 414), but licorice root itself has a more complex aroma, with almond and floral notes. a native of southwest Asia. Its English name is a much-altered version of its genus name, which derives from the Greek for "sweet root." The woody roots of this shrub are remarkable for containing a steroid-like chemical, glycyrrhizic acid, that is 50150 times sweeter than table sugar. The water extract of the roots contains many different compounds, including sugars and amino acids, which undergo flavor-and pigment-producing browning reactions with each other when the extract is concentrated. Licorice extracts are available as dark syrups, blocks, or powders, and are used in various confections, to give color and flavor to dark beers, porter, and stout, and to flavor tobacco for cigars, cigarettes, and chewing. Many licorice candies are flavored with anise-like anethole (p. 414), but licorice root itself has a more complex aroma, with almond and floral notes.

Thanks to its hormone-like chemical structure, glycyrrhizic acid has a number of effects on the human body, some helpful and some not. It helps soothe coughs, but it also can disrupt normal regulation of mineral and blood pressure levels. Licorice is therefore best consumed in moderation and infrequently; daily consumption can sometimes cause a significant rise in blood pressure and other problems.

Fenugreek Fenugreek is the small, hard seed of a bean relative, Fenugreek is the small, hard seed of a bean relative, Trigonella foenumgraec.u.m, Trigonella foenumgraec.u.m, that's native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean. Its name comes from the Latin for "Greek hay." Fenugreek is somewhat bitter and has a very distinctive sweet aroma, reminiscent of dry hay as well as maple syrup and caramel, that comes from a chemical called sotolon, which is also an important volatile in mola.s.ses, barley malt, coffee, soy sauce, cooked beef, and sherry. The outer cell layer of the fenugreek seed contains a water-soluble storage carbohydrate (galactomannan), so that when the seeds are soaked, they exude a thick, mucilaginous gel that gives a pleasant slipperiness to some Middle-Eastern sauces and condiments (Yemen's that's native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean. Its name comes from the Latin for "Greek hay." Fenugreek is somewhat bitter and has a very distinctive sweet aroma, reminiscent of dry hay as well as maple syrup and caramel, that comes from a chemical called sotolon, which is also an important volatile in mola.s.ses, barley malt, coffee, soy sauce, cooked beef, and sherry. The outer cell layer of the fenugreek seed contains a water-soluble storage carbohydrate (galactomannan), so that when the seeds are soaked, they exude a thick, mucilaginous gel that gives a pleasant slipperiness to some Middle-Eastern sauces and condiments (Yemen's hilbeh hilbeh). Fenugreek is a component of various spice mixtures, including Ethiopian berber and some Indian curry powders.

Fenugreek leaves are bitter and slightly aromatic, and are enjoyed as a fresh or dried herb in India and Iran.

Chillis Chillis, or "chile peppers," the fruits of small shrubs native to South America, are the most widely grown spice in the world. Their active ingredient, the spectacularly pungent chemical capsaicin, protects the seeds of the chilli fruit, and appears to be a chemical repellant aimed specifically at mammals. Birds, which swallow the fruits whole and disperse the seeds widely, are immune to capsaicin; mammals, whose teeth grind up the fruit and destroy the seeds, are pained by it. It's a wonderfully perverse achievement for our mammal species to have fallen in love with this anti-mammalian weapon and spread the chillis much further than any bird ever did!

The success of the chilli has been remarkable. World production and consumption are now some 20 times that of the other major pungent spice, black pepper. It is ubiquitous in Central and South America, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, and North Africa. In China the chilli is a major spice in Sichuan and Hunan provinces; in Europe, Hungary has its paprika and Spain its pimenton. In the United States, salsas became more popular than ketchup in the 1980s, thanks to the influence of Mexican restaurants. Mexico remains the most advanced chilli culture, where several different varieties may be blended to obtain a particular flavor, and where the substance of many sauces is contributed by chillis, without the aid of flavorless flours or starches.

Chillis and Capsaicins There are about 25 species of There are about 25 species of Capsic.u.m, Capsic.u.m, most natives of South America, of which five have been domesticated. Most of our common chillis come from one species, most natives of South America, of which five have been domesticated. Most of our common chillis come from one species, Capsic.u.m annuum, Capsic.u.m annuum, which was first cultivated in Mexico at least 5,000 years ago. Chillis are hollow fruits, with an outer wall rich in carotenoid pigments that encloses the seeds and the tissue that bears them, a pale, spongy ma.s.s called the placenta. (For chillis as vegetables, see p. 331). Their pungent chemicals, the capsaicins, are only synthesized by the surface cells of the placenta, and acc.u.mulate in droplets just under the cuticle of the placenta surface. That cuticle can split under the pressure and allow the capsaicin to escape and spread onto the seeds and the inner fruit wall. Some capsaicin also seems to enter the plant's circulation, and can be found in small quant.i.ties within the fruit wall and in nearby stems and leaves. which was first cultivated in Mexico at least 5,000 years ago. Chillis are hollow fruits, with an outer wall rich in carotenoid pigments that encloses the seeds and the tissue that bears them, a pale, spongy ma.s.s called the placenta. (For chillis as vegetables, see p. 331). Their pungent chemicals, the capsaicins, are only synthesized by the surface cells of the placenta, and acc.u.mulate in droplets just under the cuticle of the placenta surface. That cuticle can split under the pressure and allow the capsaicin to escape and spread onto the seeds and the inner fruit wall. Some capsaicin also seems to enter the plant's circulation, and can be found in small quant.i.ties within the fruit wall and in nearby stems and leaves.

The amount of capsaicin that a chilli contains depends not only on the plant's genetic makeup, but on growing conditions - high temperatures and drought increase production - and on its ripeness. The fruit acc.u.mulates capsaicin from pollination until it begins to ripen, when its pungency declines somewhat: so maximum pungency comes around the time that the green fruit begins to change color.

There are several different versions of the capsaicin molecule found in chillis. This may be why different kinds of chillis seem to produce different kinds of pungency - quick and transient, slow and persistent - and to affect different parts of the mouth.

Capsaicin's Effects on the Body The effects of capsaicin on the human body are many and complex. As I write in 2004, the scorecard is fairly positive. Capsaicin does not appear to increase the risk of cancer or stomach ulcers. It affects the body's temperature regulation, making us feel hotter than we actually are, and inducing cooling mechanisms (sweating, increased blood flow in the skin). It increases the body's metabolic rate, so that we burn more energy (and therefore retain less in storage as fat). It may trigger brain signals that make us feel less hungry and more satiated. In sum, it may encourage us to eat less of the meal it's in, and to burn more of the calories that we do eat. The effects of capsaicin on the human body are many and complex. As I write in 2004, the scorecard is fairly positive. Capsaicin does not appear to increase the risk of cancer or stomach ulcers. It affects the body's temperature regulation, making us feel hotter than we actually are, and inducing cooling mechanisms (sweating, increased blood flow in the skin). It increases the body's metabolic rate, so that we burn more energy (and therefore retain less in storage as fat). It may trigger brain signals that make us feel less hungry and more satiated. In sum, it may encourage us to eat less of the meal it's in, and to burn more of the calories that we do eat.

Of course there's also capsaicin's irritating effects, which can be pleasurable in the mouth but not necessarily elsewhere. (This is why "pepper spray" is an effective weapon; it makes breathing and seeing difficult for about an hour.) Capsaicin is potent and oily and hard to wash off surfaces, so small amounts left on fingers can end up hours later being rubbed into an eye. Knives, cutting boards, and hands should be thoroughly washed with hot soapy water to avoid this and similar unhappy surprises. On the other hand, capsaicin irritation has found a number of medical applications; for example, when applied to the skin it helps reduce muscle pain by increasing local blood flow.

The chilli fruit. The pungent chemical capsaicin is secreted by cells on the surface of the placenta, the pithy tissue that bears the seeds.

Controlling Capsaicin Pungency The pungency of any dish that contains chillis is influenced by four main factors: the variety of chilli used, the amount of chilli added, the presence or absence of the capsaicin-rich tissues, and the length of time that the chilli is in contact with the other ingredients. The cook can reduce the pungency of chillis substantially by cutting them in half and carefully dissecting and removing the spongy placental tissue and the seeds. The pungency of any dish that contains chillis is influenced by four main factors: the variety of chilli used, the amount of chilli added, the presence or absence of the capsaicin-rich tissues, and the length of time that the chilli is in contact with the other ingredients. The cook can reduce the pungency of chillis substantially by cutting them in half and carefully dissecting and removing the spongy placental tissue and the seeds.

What about quenching the burn once the mouth is already on fire? The two surest remedies - though they're only temporary - are to get something ice-cold into the mouth, or something solid and rough, rice or crackers or a spoonful of sugar. Cold liquid or ice cools the receptors down below the temperature at which they are activated, and the rough food distracts the nerves with a different kind of signal. Though capsaicin is more soluble in alcohol and oil than it is in water, alcoholic drinks and fatty foods appear to be no more effective than cold or sweetened water at relieving the burn (carbonation adds to the irritation). If all else fails, take comfort in the fact that capsaicin pain generally fades within 15 minutes.

Dried Chillis Dried chillis are much more than a conveniently stable source of pungency and thickening power: they're the source of flavor complexity that is rare even among herbs and spices. The drying process concentrates the contents of the cells in the fruit wall, encouraging them to react with each other and generate dried-fruit, earthy, woody, nutty, and other aromatics. Drying traditionally took several weeks in sun or shade, and in much of the world it still does. Modern machine drying offers more control, and can minimize the loss of light-sensitive pigments and vitamin C, though it brings flavor differences as well. Chillis are sometimes smoke-dried (Mexican chipotles, some Spanish pimentons), which lends a characteristic note. Dried chillis are much more than a conveniently stable source of pungency and thickening power: they're the source of flavor complexity that is rare even among herbs and spices. The drying process concentrates the contents of the cells in the fruit wall, encouraging them to react with each other and generate dried-fruit, earthy, woody, nutty, and other aromatics. Drying traditionally took several weeks in sun or shade, and in much of the world it still does. Modern machine drying offers more control, and can minimize the loss of light-sensitive pigments and vitamin C, though it brings flavor differences as well. Chillis are sometimes smoke-dried (Mexican chipotles, some Spanish pimentons), which lends a characteristic note.

Other Temperate-Climate Spices Hops Hops are the dried seed-bearing "cones" of Hops are the dried seed-bearing "cones" of Humulus lupulus, Humulus lupulus, a perennial native of the Northern Hemisphere that is a relative of marijuana and hemp. The hop plant was cultivated in the Hallertau region of Germany by the 8th century, and spread to Flanders by the 14th. Though now used almost exclusively in beer, they also flavor bread and are made into an herbal tea. Hop aroma depends on the variety, and may include woody, floral, and complex sulfur notes. It's described in more detail in chapter 13. a perennial native of the Northern Hemisphere that is a relative of marijuana and hemp. The hop plant was cultivated in the Hallertau region of Germany by the 8th century, and spread to Flanders by the 14th. Though now used almost exclusively in beer, they also flavor bread and are made into an herbal tea. Hop aroma depends on the variety, and may include woody, floral, and complex sulfur notes. It's described in more detail in chapter 13.

Pepper TerminologyIn the United States, pungent capsic.u.m fruits are generally called "peppers," or "hot peppers," terms that stem from the early Spanish identification of capsic.u.m pungency with black-pepper pungency. The native Nahuatl word was chilli, chilli, which gave rise to Spanish which gave rise to Spanish chile, chile, and in turn to American and in turn to American chili chili (both a capsic.u.m-flavored stew and the powder used to make it). Chile the country got its name from an entirely unrelated word (Araucanian for "the end of the earth"). Given the many possibilities for confusion, I agree with Alan Davidson and others that we should refer to pungent capsic.u.ms with the original and unambiguous Nahuatl name (both a capsic.u.m-flavored stew and the powder used to make it). Chile the country got its name from an entirely unrelated word (Araucanian for "the end of the earth"). Given the many possibilities for confusion, I agree with Alan Davidson and others that we should refer to pungent capsic.u.ms with the original and unambiguous Nahuatl name chilli. chilli.

Mahleb Mahleb or mahaleb is the dried kernel of a small kind of cherry native to Iran, Mahleb or mahaleb is the dried kernel of a small kind of cherry native to Iran, Prunus mahaleb. Prunus mahaleb. The kernels have a warm aroma vaguely suggestive of bitter almond, and are used to flavor baked goods and sweets in much of the eastern Mediterranean. The kernels have a warm aroma vaguely suggestive of bitter almond, and are used to flavor baked goods and sweets in much of the eastern Mediterranean.

Mastic Mastic is a resin exuded from the trunk of a relative of the pistachio, Mastic is a resin exuded from the trunk of a relative of the pistachio, Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia lentiscus, a tree native to the Eastern Mediterranean that now grows only on the Greek island of Chios. Mastic was chewed like chewing gum (hence its name, from the same root as a tree native to the Eastern Mediterranean that now grows only on the Greek island of Chios. Mastic was chewed like chewing gum (hence its name, from the same root as masticate masticate), and is also used to flavor various preparations, from breads and pastries to ice cream, candies, and alcohol (ouzo). The main aromatic components of the gum are two terpenes, pine-like pinene and woody myrcene. Myrcene is also the molecule from which the long resin polymers are built. The resin is not very soluble in water, so it must be ground fine and mixed with another powdery ingredient (flour, sugar) to help disperse it evenly in liquid ingredients.

Chilli Varieties and PungenciesHere is a list of common chilli varieties and their relative pungencies. Pungency is rated in Scoville units, a measure invented around 1912 by pharmaceutical chemist Wilbur Scoville and later adapted to modern chemical a.n.a.lyses. The original method involved an overnight alcohol extraction of the pepper, and then a tasting of increasing dilutions of the extract until the pungency is barely detectable. The more the extract can be diluted, the more pungent it is, and the higher the Scoville score.

Chilli Variety

Pungency, Scoville Units Pungency, Scoville Units

Capsic.u.m annuum

Bell

0600 0600

New Mexican

5002,500 5002,500

Wax

040,000 040,000

Paprika

02,500 02,500

Pimento

0 0.

Jalapeno

2,50010,000 2,50010,000

Ancho/ poblano

1,0001,500 1,0001,500

Serrano

10,00025,000 10,00025,000

Cayenne

30,00050,000 30,00050,000

Capsic.u.m chinense

Habanero, scotch bonnet

80,000150,000 80,000150,000

Capsic.u.m frutescens

Tabasco

30,00050,000 30,00050,000

Capsic.u.m p.u.b.escens

Rocoto

30,00060,000 30,00060,000

Capsic.u.m baccatum

Aji

30,00050,000 30,00050,000

Nigella The small, black, angular seed of The small, black, angular seed of Nigella sativa, Nigella sativa, a close Eurasian relative of the common ornamental plant love-in-a-mist, tastes like a milder, more complex version of thyme or oregano, with a hint of caraway. It's used from India through southwest Asia in breads and other dishes. a close Eurasian relative of the common ornamental plant love-in-a-mist, tastes like a milder, more complex version of thyme or oregano, with a hint of caraway. It's used from India through southwest Asia in breads and other dishes.

Saffron Saffron is the world's most expensive spice: a testament not only to the labor required to produce it, but to its unique ability to impart both an unusual flavor and an intense yellow color to foods. It is a part of the flower of a kind of crocus, Saffron is the world's most expensive spice: a testament not only to the labor required to produce it, but to its unique ability to impart both an unusual flavor and an intense yellow color to foods. It is a part of the flower of a kind of crocus, Crocus sativus, Crocus sativus, which was probably domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. The saffron crocus was carried eastward to Kashmir before 500 which was probably domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. The saffron crocus was carried eastward to Kashmir before 500 BCE BCE; in medieval times the Arabs took it westward to Spain, and the Crusaders to France and England. (The name comes from the Arabic for "thread.") Today Iran and Spain are the major producers and exporters. They use saffron in their respective rice dishes, pilaf and paella; the French in their fish stew, bouillabaisse; the Italians in risotto milanese; the Indians in biryanis and milk sweets.

The numbers that figure in saffron production are startling. It takes about 70,000 crocus flowers to produce 5 lb/2.25 kg of stigmas, the three dark red ends of the tube ("style") that carries pollen down to the plant's ovary. These 5 pounds in turn dry down to about 1 lb/450 gm of saffron. And because they're so delicate, the stigmas are still harvested and separated from the other flower parts by hand, with nearly 200 hours of labor required for that same 1 pound of dried saffron. Each purple-petaled flower must be harvested on the same day that it begins to open, in late autumn. Once separated, the stigmas are carefully dried, either with a 30-minute toasting over a fire (Spain), or longer times in the sun (Iran), or in a warm room or modern oven.

Saffron Color Saffron's intense color comes from a set of carotenoid pigments (p. 267) that account for 10% or more of the dried spice's weight. The most abundant form, called crocin, is a molecular sandwich of one pigment molecule with a sugar molecule attached at each end. The sugars make the normally oil-soluble pigment into a water-soluble one - and this is why saffron is easily extracted in hot water or milk and works so well as a coloring agent for rice and other nonfatty foods. Crocin is a powerful colorant, and gives a noticeable tinge to water even at 1 part per million. Saffron's intense color comes from a set of carotenoid pigments (p. 267) that account for 10% or more of the dried spice's weight. The most abundant form, called crocin, is a molecular sandwich of one pigment molecule with a sugar molecule attached at each end. The sugars make the normally oil-soluble pigment into a water-soluble one - and this is why saffron is easily extracted in hot water or milk and works so well as a coloring agent for rice and other nonfatty foods. Crocin is a powerful colorant, and gives a noticeable tinge to water even at 1 part per million.

The saffron crocus. Pure saffron consists of the dried stigmas, the deep red tips that catch pollen grains and send them down the long style to the ovary. Second-quality saffron often includes the pale, relatively flavorless styles.