Sa.s.safras or File Sa.s.safras leaves come from a North American tree, Sa.s.safras leaves come from a North American tree, Sa.s.safras albidum. Sa.s.safras albidum. The Choctaw Indians introduced them to French settlers in Louisiana, and they are still most commonly encountered as the dry file powder used to thicken and flavor Louisiana gumbos. They carry woody, floral, and green notes, and contain little or no safrole, a compound that's prominent in the tree's roots and bark, and that used to give root beer its characteristic flavor until it was found to be a likely carcinogen (see hoja santa below). The Choctaw Indians introduced them to French settlers in Louisiana, and they are still most commonly encountered as the dry file powder used to thicken and flavor Louisiana gumbos. They carry woody, floral, and green notes, and contain little or no safrole, a compound that's prominent in the tree's roots and bark, and that used to give root beer its characteristic flavor until it was found to be a likely carcinogen (see hoja santa below).

Other Common Herbs Borage Borage is a medium-sized Mediterranean native, Borage is a medium-sized Mediterranean native, Borago officinalis, Borago officinalis, with bright blue flowers and large, fuzzy leaves that have the distinct flavor of cuc.u.mber, thanks to enzymes that convert its fatty acids into the same nine-carbon chain (nona.n.a.l) produced by cuc.u.mber enzymes. It was once a common ingredient of mixed salads (see the recipe on p. 251). Plants in the borage family acc.u.mulate potentially toxic alkaloids, so borage should be eaten in moderation. with bright blue flowers and large, fuzzy leaves that have the distinct flavor of cuc.u.mber, thanks to enzymes that convert its fatty acids into the same nine-carbon chain (nona.n.a.l) produced by cuc.u.mber enzymes. It was once a common ingredient of mixed salads (see the recipe on p. 251). Plants in the borage family acc.u.mulate potentially toxic alkaloids, so borage should be eaten in moderation.

Capers Capers are the unopened flower buds of a Mediterranean bush, Capers are the unopened flower buds of a Mediterranean bush, Capparis spinosa, Capparis spinosa, which have been gathered from the wild and pickled for thousands of years, though cultivated only for a couple of centuries. The caper bush is distantly related to the cabbage family and has its pungent sulfur compounds, which dominate in the raw flower bud. The bud is preserved in various ways - in brine, in vinegar, dry-salted - and used as a sour-salty accent in sauces and dishes, especially with fish. When drysalted, the caper bud undergoes an astonishing transformation: its radish and onion notes are displaced by the distinct aroma (from ionone and raspberry ketone) of violets and raspberries! which have been gathered from the wild and pickled for thousands of years, though cultivated only for a couple of centuries. The caper bush is distantly related to the cabbage family and has its pungent sulfur compounds, which dominate in the raw flower bud. The bud is preserved in various ways - in brine, in vinegar, dry-salted - and used as a sour-salty accent in sauces and dishes, especially with fish. When drysalted, the caper bud undergoes an astonishing transformation: its radish and onion notes are displaced by the distinct aroma (from ionone and raspberry ketone) of violets and raspberries!

Curry Leaf Curry leaf is the leaf of a small tree in the citrus family, Curry leaf is the leaf of a small tree in the citrus family, Murraya koenigii, Murraya koenigii, a native of south Asia. It is primarily used in south India and Malaysia, where households often have their own plant and add it to many dishes. Despite its name, the curry leaf doesn't taste like Indian curries; it is mild and subtle, with woody, fresh notes. Curry leaves are added to stews or other simmered dishes, or briefly sauteed to flavor a cooking oil. They are also remarkable for containing unusual alkaloids (carbazoles) with antioxidant and antiin-flammatory properties. a native of south Asia. It is primarily used in south India and Malaysia, where households often have their own plant and add it to many dishes. Despite its name, the curry leaf doesn't taste like Indian curries; it is mild and subtle, with woody, fresh notes. Curry leaves are added to stews or other simmered dishes, or briefly sauteed to flavor a cooking oil. They are also remarkable for containing unusual alkaloids (carbazoles) with antioxidant and antiin-flammatory properties.

Curry Plant Curry plant is a Mediterranean member of the lettuce family, Curry plant is a Mediterranean member of the lettuce family, Helichrysum italic.u.m, Helichrysum italic.u.m, that has been said to be reminiscent of Indian curries. It does contain a number of terpenes that give it a vaguely spicy, pleasant aroma; it's used to flavor egg dishes, teas, and sweets. that has been said to be reminiscent of Indian curries. It does contain a number of terpenes that give it a vaguely spicy, pleasant aroma; it's used to flavor egg dishes, teas, and sweets.

Epazote Epazote is a scented member of the large "goosefoot" family, which also provides us with spinach, beets, and the grain quinoa. Epazote is a scented member of the large "goosefoot" family, which also provides us with spinach, beets, and the grain quinoa. Chenopodium ambrosioides Chenopodium ambrosioides is a weedy native of temperate central America that has spread throughout much of the world, and lends a characteristic aroma to Mexican beans, soups, and stews. That aroma is variously described as fatty, herbaceous, and penetrating, and is due to a terpene called ascaridole. Ascaridole is also responsible for the use of epazote in folk medicine; it is toxic to intestinal worms. is a weedy native of temperate central America that has spread throughout much of the world, and lends a characteristic aroma to Mexican beans, soups, and stews. That aroma is variously described as fatty, herbaceous, and penetrating, and is due to a terpene called ascaridole. Ascaridole is also responsible for the use of epazote in folk medicine; it is toxic to intestinal worms.

Hoja Santa This herb's name is Spanish for "holy leaf," and refers to the large leaf of New World relatives of black pepper, This herb's name is Spanish for "holy leaf," and refers to the large leaf of New World relatives of black pepper, Piper auritum Piper auritum and and P. sanctum. P. sanctum. It's used from southern Mexico to northern South America to wrap foods and flavor them while they're cooked, and is also added directly to dishes as a flavoring. The main aromatic in hoja santa is safrole, the characteristic note of sa.s.safras familiar from root beers, and a suspected carcinogen. It's used from southern Mexico to northern South America to wrap foods and flavor them while they're cooked, and is also added directly to dishes as a flavoring. The main aromatic in hoja santa is safrole, the characteristic note of sa.s.safras familiar from root beers, and a suspected carcinogen.

Houttuynia Houttuynia is a small perennial Asian plant, Houttuynia is a small perennial Asian plant, Houttuynia cordata, Houttuynia cordata, in the primitive lizard's-tail family (Saururaceae), a relative of black pepper. Its leaves are used in Vietnamese and Thai salads, stews, and other dishes. There are two main varieties, one with a citrus aroma, and the other with an unusual scent said to resemble a mixture of meat, fish, and coriander. in the primitive lizard's-tail family (Saururaceae), a relative of black pepper. Its leaves are used in Vietnamese and Thai salads, stews, and other dishes. There are two main varieties, one with a citrus aroma, and the other with an unusual scent said to resemble a mixture of meat, fish, and coriander.

Juniper Berries Juniper berries are not leaves, but their essence is the aroma of pine needles, so I include them here, along with the observation that pine and other evergreen needles are often used as flavorings. The Chinese steam fish over pine needles, and the original flavoring for salt-cured salmon (gravlax) was probably pine needles rather than dill. Pineyness is also one element in the aromas of many herbs and spices (see charts, pp. 392, 393). Juniper berries are not leaves, but their essence is the aroma of pine needles, so I include them here, along with the observation that pine and other evergreen needles are often used as flavorings. The Chinese steam fish over pine needles, and the original flavoring for salt-cured salmon (gravlax) was probably pine needles rather than dill. Pineyness is also one element in the aromas of many herbs and spices (see charts, pp. 392, 393).

There are about 10 species of Juniperus, Juniperus, a distant relative of the pine, all native to the northern hemisphere. They make small cone-like reproductive structures, about a third of an inch or 10 mm across, but the scales remain fleshy and coalesce to form a "berry" that surrounds the seeds. The berries take from one to three years to mature, during which they turn from green to purplish black. When immature, their aroma is dominated by the terpene pinene; when mature, they carry a mix of pine, green-fresh, and citrus notes. After two years in a spice bottle there is very little aroma left: so juniper berries are best when foraged and fresh. They are much used in northern Europe and Scandinavia to flavor meats, especially game, and cabbage dishes. Juniper is the distinguishing flavor in gin, and gave gin its name (originally Dutch a distant relative of the pine, all native to the northern hemisphere. They make small cone-like reproductive structures, about a third of an inch or 10 mm across, but the scales remain fleshy and coalesce to form a "berry" that surrounds the seeds. The berries take from one to three years to mature, during which they turn from green to purplish black. When immature, their aroma is dominated by the terpene pinene; when mature, they carry a mix of pine, green-fresh, and citrus notes. After two years in a spice bottle there is very little aroma left: so juniper berries are best when foraged and fresh. They are much used in northern Europe and Scandinavia to flavor meats, especially game, and cabbage dishes. Juniper is the distinguishing flavor in gin, and gave gin its name (originally Dutch genever genever).

Lemongra.s.s Lemongra.s.s is one of a small group of aromatic species in the gra.s.s family. Lemongra.s.s is one of a small group of aromatic species in the gra.s.s family. Cymbopogon citratus Cymbopogon citratus acc.u.mulates the lemony terpene citral (a mixture of two compounds, neral and geranial), as well as flowery geraniol and linalool, in special oil cells in the middle of its leaves. It is a native of seasonally dry southern Asia, including the foothills of the Himalayas, and is important in the cooking of Southeast Asia. Lemongra.s.s forms clumps of thick shoots; all parts are aromatic, but only the lower stalk is tender enough to be edible itself. The older outer leaves can be used to infuse a dish with their flavor, or be made into an herbal tea. In Thailand the tender stalk is a standard component of pounded spice pastes, and it's also eaten fresh in salads. acc.u.mulates the lemony terpene citral (a mixture of two compounds, neral and geranial), as well as flowery geraniol and linalool, in special oil cells in the middle of its leaves. It is a native of seasonally dry southern Asia, including the foothills of the Himalayas, and is important in the cooking of Southeast Asia. Lemongra.s.s forms clumps of thick shoots; all parts are aromatic, but only the lower stalk is tender enough to be edible itself. The older outer leaves can be used to infuse a dish with their flavor, or be made into an herbal tea. In Thailand the tender stalk is a standard component of pounded spice pastes, and it's also eaten fresh in salads.

Lemon Verbena Lemon verbena is a South American plant, Lemon verbena is a South American plant, Aloysia triphylla, Aloysia triphylla, a relative of Mexican oregano. The lemony flavor of its leaves comes from the same terpenes, collectively called citral, that flavor lemongra.s.s; other terpenes lend a flowery note. a relative of Mexican oregano. The lemony flavor of its leaves comes from the same terpenes, collectively called citral, that flavor lemongra.s.s; other terpenes lend a flowery note.

Lolot Lolot is the large, heart-shaped leaf of a black-pepper relative, Lolot is the large, heart-shaped leaf of a black-pepper relative, Piper lolot, Piper lolot, a native of Southeast Asia, and used there as a flavoring wrap for grilling meats. a native of Southeast Asia, and used there as a flavoring wrap for grilling meats.

Orange Flowers Orange flowers come from the bitter or Seville orange, Orange flowers come from the bitter or Seville orange, Citrus aurantium, Citrus aurantium, and they have been used for millennia to flavor sweets and other dishes in the Middle East, usually in the extract called orange-flower water. The distinctive perfume results from a mixture of terpenes also found in roses and lavender, with an important contribution from the same compound that flavors concord grapes (methyl anthranilate). and they have been used for millennia to flavor sweets and other dishes in the Middle East, usually in the extract called orange-flower water. The distinctive perfume results from a mixture of terpenes also found in roses and lavender, with an important contribution from the same compound that flavors concord grapes (methyl anthranilate).

Makrut or Kaffir Lime Ma krut Ma krut is the Thai name for the tree also known as kaffir lime ("kaffir" is Arabic for "unbeliever" and has derogatory connotations). This Southeast Asian member of the citrus family, is the Thai name for the tree also known as kaffir lime ("kaffir" is Arabic for "unbeliever" and has derogatory connotations). This Southeast Asian member of the citrus family, Citrus hystrix, Citrus hystrix, has distinctively aromatic leaves and fruit rinds that are an important ingredient in Thai and Laotian cooking, especially soups, stews, and fish dishes. The rind has an unremarkable mix of citrus, pine, and fresh notes, but the tough leaves are richly endowed with citronellal, which gives them an intense, fresh, lingering lemon-green character distinct from that of sweeter citral-flavored lemongra.s.s (with which it's often cooked). Citronellal is named for citronella, its original and main source, which is a sister species to lemongra.s.s ( has distinctively aromatic leaves and fruit rinds that are an important ingredient in Thai and Laotian cooking, especially soups, stews, and fish dishes. The rind has an unremarkable mix of citrus, pine, and fresh notes, but the tough leaves are richly endowed with citronellal, which gives them an intense, fresh, lingering lemon-green character distinct from that of sweeter citral-flavored lemongra.s.s (with which it's often cooked). Citronellal is named for citronella, its original and main source, which is a sister species to lemongra.s.s (Cymbopogon winteria.n.u.s).

Nasturtium The flowers, leaves, and immature fruits of the familiar South American native The flowers, leaves, and immature fruits of the familiar South American native Tropaeolum major Tropaeolum major all have a pungency like that of watercress, and enliven salads. all have a pungency like that of watercress, and enliven salads.

Nightshade Nightshade is a relative of the potato, Nightshade is a relative of the potato, Solanum torvum, Solanum torvum, which grows into a small and short-lived tree. It's a native of the West Indies, but is now found throughout tropical Asia. Its small berry-like fruits are intensely bitter, and are used in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia to contribute just that quality to sauces and salads. which grows into a small and short-lived tree. It's a native of the West Indies, but is now found throughout tropical Asia. Its small berry-like fruits are intensely bitter, and are used in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia to contribute just that quality to sauces and salads.

Rau Ram Rau ram is the Vietnamese name for a sprawling herb in the buckwheat family known in English as fragrant knotweed, and now as Vietnamese cilantro. Rau ram is the Vietnamese name for a sprawling herb in the buckwheat family known in English as fragrant knotweed, and now as Vietnamese cilantro. Polygonum odoratum Polygonum odoratum is a native of Southeast Asia whose leaves mix the aromas of coriander and lemon with a slightly peppery taste. It's often paired with mint, and eaten fresh with many foods. is a native of Southeast Asia whose leaves mix the aromas of coriander and lemon with a slightly peppery taste. It's often paired with mint, and eaten fresh with many foods.

Rice-Paddy Herb Rice-paddy herb is an aquatic plant in the snapdragon family, Rice-paddy herb is an aquatic plant in the snapdragon family, Limnophila chinensis Limnophila chinensis ssp. ssp. aromatica, aromatica, a native of Asia and the Pacific islands, whose small leaves are used in Southeast Asian fish dishes, soups, and curries, especially in Vietnam. It has a lemony but complex aroma produced by small quant.i.ties of a citrusy terpene and the main ingredient of perilla (perillaldehyde). a native of Asia and the Pacific islands, whose small leaves are used in Southeast Asian fish dishes, soups, and curries, especially in Vietnam. It has a lemony but complex aroma produced by small quant.i.ties of a citrusy terpene and the main ingredient of perilla (perillaldehyde).

Rose Flowers Roses, mainly from the Eurasian hybrid Roses, mainly from the Eurasian hybrid Rosa x damascena Rosa x damascena, have been used for millennia from the Middle East through Asia, usually dried or in the form of an extract (rose water). Their aroma comes mainly from the terpene geraniol. Roses are most often used in sweets, but are also found in the savory Moroccan spice mixture ras el hanout, and in North African sausages.

Screwpine or Pandan Screwpine is the aromatic, strap-like leaf of shrubs related to the lily family that are native to Indonesia (species of Screwpine is the aromatic, strap-like leaf of shrubs related to the lily family that are native to Indonesia (species of Panda.n.u.s Panda.n.u.s). Screwpine leaves are used in India and southeast Asia to flavor rice dishes and sweets, and to wrap meats and fish. Their primary volatile compound is the same one that gives basmati and jasmine rices their distinctive nutty aroma (2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, which is also prominent in the aroma of popcorn and of crabmeat). The screwpine flower is also aromatic and the source of a more perfume-like extract called kewra, which flavors many Indian milk sweets.

Sorrel Sorrel is the startlingly sour leaf of several European relatives of rhubarb and buckwheat that are rich in oxalic acid: Sorrel is the startlingly sour leaf of several European relatives of rhubarb and buckwheat that are rich in oxalic acid: Rumex acetosa, scutatus, Rumex acetosa, scutatus, and and acetosella. acetosella. Cooks use them mainly as a source of acidity, and they also provide a more generic green aroma. Sorrel readily disintegrates with a little cooking into a sauce-like puree that complements fish, but whose chlorophyll turns drab olive from the acidity. The color can be brightened by pureeing some raw sorrel and adding that to the sauce just before serving. Cooks use them mainly as a source of acidity, and they also provide a more generic green aroma. Sorrel readily disintegrates with a little cooking into a sauce-like puree that complements fish, but whose chlorophyll turns drab olive from the acidity. The color can be brightened by pureeing some raw sorrel and adding that to the sauce just before serving.

Tarragon Tarragon is the small, narrow leaf of a native of western and northern Asia, Tarragon is the small, narrow leaf of a native of western and northern Asia, Artemisia dracunculus, Artemisia dracunculus, a member of the lettuce family. The robust wild tarragon, often sold in plant nurseries as Russian tarragon, has a harsh and uninteresting flavor, while the relatively fragile cultivated form, "French" tarragon, has a distinctive aroma thanks to the presence of a phenolic compound called estragole (from the French name for the plant, a member of the lettuce family. The robust wild tarragon, often sold in plant nurseries as Russian tarragon, has a harsh and uninteresting flavor, while the relatively fragile cultivated form, "French" tarragon, has a distinctive aroma thanks to the presence of a phenolic compound called estragole (from the French name for the plant, estragon estragon) in oil cavities alongside the leaf veins. Estragole is a close chemical relative of the anise aromatic anethole, and does have an anise-like character. Tarragon is a component of the French mix fines herbes, fines herbes, is the primary flavoring in bearnaise sauce, and is often used to flavor vinegars. is the primary flavoring in bearnaise sauce, and is often used to flavor vinegars.

"Mexican tarragon" is a marigold-like New World native, Tagetes lucida, Tagetes lucida, whose leaves do indeed contain a mixture of anise-like anethole and tarragon's estragole. whose leaves do indeed contain a mixture of anise-like anethole and tarragon's estragole.

Tobacco Tobacco is used occasionally as a food flavoring, and its curing resembles the making of tea (p. 437). The leaves of the notorious North American native Tobacco is used occasionally as a food flavoring, and its curing resembles the making of tea (p. 437). The leaves of the notorious North American native Nicotiana tabac.u.m, Nicotiana tabac.u.m, a relative of the potato and tomato, are harvested when they begin to turn yellow and develop resinous secretions, then either sun-cured or fermented in heaps for several weeks, and dried by contact with hot metal. These treatments develop a complex aroma with woody, leathery, earthy, and spicy notes, and these are sometimes augmented with the addition of various essential oils (vanilla, cinnamon, clove, rose, and others). Tobacco leaves contain astringent tannins and bitter nicotine, so they are usually infused only lightly into sauces, syrups, and creams. Sometimes whole leaves are used as a disposable wrapper to flavor a food during cooking. a relative of the potato and tomato, are harvested when they begin to turn yellow and develop resinous secretions, then either sun-cured or fermented in heaps for several weeks, and dried by contact with hot metal. These treatments develop a complex aroma with woody, leathery, earthy, and spicy notes, and these are sometimes augmented with the addition of various essential oils (vanilla, cinnamon, clove, rose, and others). Tobacco leaves contain astringent tannins and bitter nicotine, so they are usually infused only lightly into sauces, syrups, and creams. Sometimes whole leaves are used as a disposable wrapper to flavor a food during cooking.

Water Pepper Water pepper is a relative of rau ram, or Vietnamese coriander. Water pepper is a relative of rau ram, or Vietnamese coriander. Polygonum hydropiper Polygonum hydropiper is a widespread native of wet areas in the Northern Hemisphere. Its leaves have been used as a pepper subst.i.tute in Europe, and are now used mainly in j.a.pan to provide a peppery, somewhat numbing pungency (from polyG.o.dial). Water pepper also has woody, pine, and eucalyptus notes. is a widespread native of wet areas in the Northern Hemisphere. Its leaves have been used as a pepper subst.i.tute in Europe, and are now used mainly in j.a.pan to provide a peppery, somewhat numbing pungency (from polyG.o.dial). Water pepper also has woody, pine, and eucalyptus notes.

Wintergreen Wintergreen is the leaf of Wintergreen is the leaf of Gaultheria proc.u.mbens Gaultheria proc.u.mbens or or fragrantissima, fragrantissima, a North American bush in the blueberry and cranberry family, whose distinctive, refreshing aroma is created mainly by methyl salicylate. a North American bush in the blueberry and cranberry family, whose distinctive, refreshing aroma is created mainly by methyl salicylate.

A Survey of Temperate-Climate Spices As is true of herbs, many of our temperate-climate spices come from just a few plant families. In the following survey, I group together spices that are botanically related, and list the rest in alphabetical order. Tropical spices are surveyed separately in the next section.

The Carrot Family In addition to many leafy herbs, the carrot family also gives us a number of our favorite spices. The aromatic "seeds" of plants in the carrot family are actually small but complete fruits that are dry rather than fleshy. They are borne in pairs, enclosed in a protective husk, and are usually sold husked and separated. The individual fruits have a characteristic ridged surface, and their aromatic oil is contained in ca.n.a.ls that lie under the ridges.

Ajwain Ajwain ( Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi) is a close relative of caraway, used in North Africa and Asia, especially India, and can be thought of as a seed version of thyme: it carries the essence of thyme, thymol, in a caraway-like seed.

Carrot family anatomy. Fennel seeds. Seeds of plants in the carrot family carry their essential oil in hollow chambers beneath their outer ridges.

Anise Anise is the seed of a small central Asian plant, Anise is the seed of a small central Asian plant, Pimpinella anisum, Pimpinella anisum, which has been prized since ancient time. It's remarkable for its high content of the phenolic compound anethole, which is both distinctively aromatic and sweet-tasting, and has been mainly used to flavor sweets and alcohols (Pernod, pastis, ouzo), though the Greeks also use it in meat dishes and tomato sauces. which has been prized since ancient time. It's remarkable for its high content of the phenolic compound anethole, which is both distinctively aromatic and sweet-tasting, and has been mainly used to flavor sweets and alcohols (Pernod, pastis, ouzo), though the Greeks also use it in meat dishes and tomato sauces.

Asafoetida Asafoetida is one of the strangest and strongest of all spices. It comes from a perennial plant in the carrot family native to the mountains of Central Asia, from Turkey through Iran and Afghanistan to Kashmir; India and Iran are major producers. Asafoetida is one of the strangest and strongest of all spices. It comes from a perennial plant in the carrot family native to the mountains of Central Asia, from Turkey through Iran and Afghanistan to Kashmir; India and Iran are major producers. Ferula asafoetida, F. alliacea, F. foetida, Ferula asafoetida, F. alliacea, F. foetida, and and F. narthex F. narthex look something like giant carrot plants, growing to 5 feet/1.5 m and developing ma.s.sive carrot-like roots 6 in/15 cm in diameter, from which new sprouts arise every spring. The spice is obtained after the new foliage begins to turn yellow. The top of the root is exposed, the foliage pulled out, and the root surface periodically sc.r.a.ped to wound it and gather the protective sap that collects in the wound. The sap slowly hardens and develops a strong, sulfurous aroma reminiscent of human sweat and washed-rind cheese (p. 58). Sometimes the resin is aged in fresh goat or sheep skin to augment its aroma, which is so strong that the resin is commonly ground and diluted for sale with gum arabic and flour. The aroma of asafoetida is due to a complex mixture of sulfur compounds, a dozen identical with volatiles in the onion family, and a number of less common di-, tri-, and tetrasulfides. Asafoetida can give the impression of onions, garlic, eggs, meat, and white truffles, and in India is a prominent ingredient in the cooking of the Jains, who avoid animal foods and also onion and garlic (because they contain a bud that would otherwise grow into a new plant). look something like giant carrot plants, growing to 5 feet/1.5 m and developing ma.s.sive carrot-like roots 6 in/15 cm in diameter, from which new sprouts arise every spring. The spice is obtained after the new foliage begins to turn yellow. The top of the root is exposed, the foliage pulled out, and the root surface periodically sc.r.a.ped to wound it and gather the protective sap that collects in the wound. The sap slowly hardens and develops a strong, sulfurous aroma reminiscent of human sweat and washed-rind cheese (p. 58). Sometimes the resin is aged in fresh goat or sheep skin to augment its aroma, which is so strong that the resin is commonly ground and diluted for sale with gum arabic and flour. The aroma of asafoetida is due to a complex mixture of sulfur compounds, a dozen identical with volatiles in the onion family, and a number of less common di-, tri-, and tetrasulfides. Asafoetida can give the impression of onions, garlic, eggs, meat, and white truffles, and in India is a prominent ingredient in the cooking of the Jains, who avoid animal foods and also onion and garlic (because they contain a bud that would otherwise grow into a new plant).

Caraway Caraway comes from the small herb Caraway comes from the small herb Carum carvi. Carum carvi. There are annual and biennial forms, the first native to central Europe, the second to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. The biennial form develops a taproot the first summer, then flowers and fruits the second; the taproots are sometimes cooked like carrots in northern Europe. Caraway may have been among the first spice plants cultivated in Europe; its seeds were found in ancient Swiss lake dwellings, and have continued to be an important ingredient in Eastern Europe. The distinctive flavor of caraway comes from the terpene D-carvone (which it shares with dill), with citrusy limonene the only other major volatile. Caraway is used in cabbage, potato, and pork dishes, in breads and cheeses, and in the Scandinavian alcohol aquavit. There are annual and biennial forms, the first native to central Europe, the second to the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. The biennial form develops a taproot the first summer, then flowers and fruits the second; the taproots are sometimes cooked like carrots in northern Europe. Caraway may have been among the first spice plants cultivated in Europe; its seeds were found in ancient Swiss lake dwellings, and have continued to be an important ingredient in Eastern Europe. The distinctive flavor of caraway comes from the terpene D-carvone (which it shares with dill), with citrusy limonene the only other major volatile. Caraway is used in cabbage, potato, and pork dishes, in breads and cheeses, and in the Scandinavian alcohol aquavit.

Spices of the Carrot Family

Ajwain

Trachyspermum ammi Trachyspermum ammi

Anise

Pimpinella anisum Pimpinella anisum

Asafoetida

Ferula asafoetida Ferula asafoetida

Caraway

Carum carvi Carum carvi

Celery seed

Apium graveolens Apium graveolens

Coriander

Coriandrum sativum Coriandrum sativum

c.u.min

c.u.minum cyminum c.u.minum cyminum

c.u.min, black

c.u.minum nigrum c.u.minum nigrum

Dill seed

Anethum graveolens Anethum graveolens

Fennel seed

Foeniculum vulgare Foeniculum vulgare

Celery Seed Celery seed is essentially a concentrated, dried version of the same aromas found in fresh celery (Apium graveolens), though of course it lacks the fresh green notes. The main aromas are a distinctive celery note from unusual compounds called phthalides, together with citrus and sweet notes. Celery seed was used in the ancient Mediterranean and is still common in European and American sausages, pickling mixes, and salad dressings. "Celery salt" is a mixture of salt and ground celery seeds.

Coriander Coriander ( Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) has been valued and cultivated since ancient times, more for its dried fruits than its leaves, which have entirely different flavors. The flavor of the fruit oil is startlingly floral and lemony, and makes coriander unique and irreplaceable in the cook's a.r.s.enal of aromas. It's generally used in combination with other spices, as a component of a pickling or sausage mix, in gin and other alcohols, or as half of the coriander-c.u.min backbone of many Indian dishes. Coriander is also one of the distinguishing flavors in American hot dogs.

There are two common types of coriander. The European type has small fruits (1.53 mm), a relatively high essential oil content, and a large proportion of flowery linalool; the Indian type has larger fruits (to 5 mm), a lower oil content, less linalool, and several aromatics not found in the European type.

Coriander seed is generally supplied whole, with the two dry fruits still enclosed in their husk. When it's ground along with the aromatic fruits, the brittle, fibrous husk makes a good water absorber and thickener for sauces (the liquid portion of a curry, for example). Coa.r.s.ely ground coriander is also used to coat meats and fish and provide flavor, crunch, and insulation at the same time.

c.u.min c.u.min comes from a small annual plant ( c.u.min comes from a small annual plant (c.u.minum cyminum) native to southwest Asia, and was enjoyed by the Greeks and Romans; the Greeks kept it at the table in its own box, much as pepper is treated today. For some reason c.u.min largely disappeared from European cooking during the Middle Ages, though the Spanish kept it long enough to help it take root in Mexican cooking. The Dutch still make a c.u.min-flavored cheese, and the Savoie French a c.u.min bread, but c.u.min now mainly marks the foods of North Africa, western Asia, India, and Mexico. Its distinctive aroma comes from an unusual chemical (c.u.minaldehyde) that is related to the essence of bitter almond (benzaldehyde). It also has fresh and pine notes.

The Flavor of AniseThe volatile chemical that creates the typical aroma of anise - as well as of fennel, star anise, the Central American pepper relative Piper marginatum, Piper marginatum, and the herb sweet cicely ( and the herb sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) - is called trans anethole. It is one of a group of compounds that are not only distinctively aromatic, but also intensely sweet - 13 times sweeter than table sugar, weight for weight. Star anise is chewed in China, and fennel seed in India, to "sweeten the breath," and they are also literally sweet for the person chewing. A related sweet aromatic is estragole (methyl chavicol), which is most prominent in sweet basil and tarragon.Anethole is unusual among phenolic flavor compounds for remaining pleasant to the taste at high concentrations. Its very high concentration in anise-flavored liquors is the reason for the dramatic clouding that results when these liquors are diluted with water: anethole dissolves in alcohol but not in water, so when the added water dilutes the alcohol, the anethole molecules cl.u.s.ter together in bunches big enough to scatter light.

Black c.u.min is the seed of a different species (c.u.minum nigrum), darker and smaller, with less c.u.minaldehyde and a more complex aroma. It is much used in savory dishes of North Africa, the Middle East, and North India.

Dill Seed Dill seed has a stronger flavor than dill weed, the feathery leaves of the same plant ( Dill seed has a stronger flavor than dill weed, the feathery leaves of the same plant (Anethum graveolens). It's mildly reminiscent of caraway thanks to its content of the caraway terpene carvone, but also has fresh, spicy, and citrus notes. It's mainly used in central and northern Europe in cuc.u.mber pickles (the combination goes back at least to the 17th century), sausages, condiments, cheeses, and baked goods. Indian dill, var. sowa, sowa, produces a larger seed with a somewhat different balance of aromas; it's used in spice mixtures of northern India. produces a larger seed with a somewhat different balance of aromas; it's used in spice mixtures of northern India.

Fennel Seed and Pollen Fennel seed has the same anise-like aroma and sweet taste as the stalk and leaves of the plant that bears it, Fennel seed has the same anise-like aroma and sweet taste as the stalk and leaves of the plant that bears it, Foeniculum vulgare. Foeniculum vulgare. Its dominant volatile is the phenolic compound anethole (see anise, above), supported by citrus, fresh, and pine notes. Most fennel seed comes from sweet fennel varieties (p. 407) and tastes sweet; seed from the less cultivated types are also bitter due to the presence of a particular terpene (fenchone). Fennel seed is a distinctive ingredient in Italian sausages and in Indian spice mixes, and in India is chewed as an after-meal breath freshener. Its dominant volatile is the phenolic compound anethole (see anise, above), supported by citrus, fresh, and pine notes. Most fennel seed comes from sweet fennel varieties (p. 407) and tastes sweet; seed from the less cultivated types are also bitter due to the presence of a particular terpene (fenchone). Fennel seed is a distinctive ingredient in Italian sausages and in Indian spice mixes, and in India is chewed as an after-meal breath freshener.

The fine yellow pollen of the fennel flower is also collected and used as a spice. Fennel pollen combines anise and floral aromas, and in Italy is sprinkled on dishes at the last minute.

The Cabbage Family: Pungent Mustards, Horseradish, Wasabi Of the various spices that manage to please us by causing irritation and pain, the mustards and their relatives are unique in providing a volatile pungency, one that travels from the food through the air to irritate our nasal pa.s.sages as well as our mouth. The active ingredients of chillis and black pepper become significantly volatile only at high temperatures, above about 140F/ 60C, which is why roasting hot chillis or toasting peppercorns can cause everyone in the kitchen to start sneezing. But mustard and horseradish and wasabi can get into the nose even at room or mouth temperature. Theirs is a head-filling hotness.

The pungency of mustards and their relatives arises from the same chemical-defense system used by their vegetable relatives in the cabbage family (p. 321). The plants store their irritant defenses, the isothiocyanates, by combining them with a sugar molecule. The storage form is not irritating, but it does taste bitter. When their cells are damaged, special enzymes reach the storage form and break it apart, liberating the irritant molecules (and at the same time eliminating the bitterness). Mustard seeds and horseradish roots are pungent because we grind them up raw and encourage their enzymes to liberate the irritant molecules. When mustard seeds are cooked - for many Indian dishes they are toasted or fried until they pop - the liberating enzymes are inactivated, no irritants are liberated, and their flavor ends up nutty and bitter rather than pungent.

Mustards Mustard seed has been found in prehistoric sites from Europe to China, and was the first and only native pungent spice available to early Europe. It has been made into the familiar European condiment at least since Roman times; its name in most European languages comes not from the Latin name of the seed or plant ( Mustard seed has been found in prehistoric sites from Europe to China, and was the first and only native pungent spice available to early Europe. It has been made into the familiar European condiment at least since Roman times; its name in most European languages comes not from the Latin name of the seed or plant (sinapis), but from the condiment, which was made with freshly fermented wine (mustum), and the hot (ardens) seeds. Different nations have distinctive prepared mustards whose roots go back as far as the Middle Ages. Mustard is also widely used as the whole seed, especially in Indian cooking, and flavors a broad range of dishes, including fruits preserved in sugar (Italian mostarda di frutta mostarda di frutta).

Black, Brown, and White Mustards There are three main kinds of mustard plants and seed, each with its own character. There are three main kinds of mustard plants and seed, each with its own character.

Black mustard, Bra.s.sica nigra, Bra.s.sica nigra, is a Eurasian native, small and dark-hulled, with a high content of the defensive storage compound sinigrin and therefore a high pungency potential. It was long important in Europe and still is in India, but is an inconvenient crop and in many countries has been replaced by brown mustard. is a Eurasian native, small and dark-hulled, with a high content of the defensive storage compound sinigrin and therefore a high pungency potential. It was long important in Europe and still is in India, but is an inconvenient crop and in many countries has been replaced by brown mustard.

Brown mustard, B. juncea, B. juncea, is a hybrid of black mustard and the turnip ( is a hybrid of black mustard and the turnip (B. rapa) that is easier to cultivate and harvest. It has large, brown seeds that contain somewhat less sinigrin than black mustard and therefore less potential pungency. Most European prepared mustards are made with brown mustard.

White or yellow mustard, Sinapis alba Sinapis alba (or (or Bra.s.sica hirta Bra.s.sica hirta), is a European native with large pale seeds and a different defensive storage compound, sinalbin. The irritating portion of sinalbin is much less volatile than the irritant in sinigrin, so little of white mustard's pungency rises into the nose. It mostly affects the mouth, and generally seems milder than black or brown mustard. White mustard is used mainly in the United States, in prepared mustards as well as whole in pickle mixes.

Making and Using Mustard Prepared mustard condiments can be made either from whole seeds or from powdered mustard, also called mustard flour, which has been ground and sieved to remove the seed coat. Dry mustard seeds and their powder are not pungent. Their pungency develops over the course of a few minutes or a few hours when the seeds are soaked in liquid and ground, or the preground seeds are simply moistened. The combination of moisture and cell damage revives the seeds' enzymes and allows them to liberate the pungent compounds from their storage forms. Most prepared mustards are made with acidic liquids - vinegar, wine, fruit juices - which slow the enzymes, but also slow the later disappearance of the pungent compounds as they gradually react with oxygen and other substances in the mix. Prepared mustard condiments can be made either from whole seeds or from powdered mustard, also called mustard flour, which has been ground and sieved to remove the seed coat. Dry mustard seeds and their powder are not pungent. Their pungency develops over the course of a few minutes or a few hours when the seeds are soaked in liquid and ground, or the preground seeds are simply moistened. The combination of moisture and cell damage revives the seeds' enzymes and allows them to liberate the pungent compounds from their storage forms. Most prepared mustards are made with acidic liquids - vinegar, wine, fruit juices - which slow the enzymes, but also slow the later disappearance of the pungent compounds as they gradually react with oxygen and other substances in the mix.

Roman MustardCarefully cleanse and sift mustard-seed, then wash it in cold water, and when it has been well cleaned, leave it in the water for two hours. Next take it out and after it has been squeezed in the hands,...add pine-kernels, which should be as fresh as possible, and almonds, and carefully crush them together after pouring in vinegar.... You willfind this mustard not only suitable as a sauce but also pleasing to the eye; for if it is carefully made, it is of an exquisite brilliance.- Columella, De re rustica, De re rustica, 1st century 1st century CE CE Once the pungency has developed, cooking will drive off and modify the irritant molecules and so reduce the pungency, leaving behind a more generic cabbage-family aroma. Mustard is therefore usually added at the end of the cooking process.

Other Uses for Mustards In addition to their chemical defenses, mustard seeds are about a third protein, a third carbohydrate, and a third oil. When the seeds are ground, the small protein and carbohydrate particles and dissolved mucilage from the seedcoat can coat the surfaces of oil droplets and thus stabilize such sauce emulsions as mayonnaise and vinaigrette (p. 628). The seedcoat of white mustard is especially rich in mucilage (up to 5% of the seed weight), and ground white mustard is used in sausages to help bind the meat particles together. In addition to their chemical defenses, mustard seeds are about a third protein, a third carbohydrate, and a third oil. When the seeds are ground, the small protein and carbohydrate particles and dissolved mucilage from the seedcoat can coat the surfaces of oil droplets and thus stabilize such sauce emulsions as mayonnaise and vinaigrette (p. 628). The seedcoat of white mustard is especially rich in mucilage (up to 5% of the seed weight), and ground white mustard is used in sausages to help bind the meat particles together.

Mustard oil is a traditional cooking oil in Pakistan and in Northern India, where it lends a distinctive flavor to Bengali fish dishes, pickles, and other preparations. In much of the West, the sale of mustard oil for food use is illegal, for two reasons: it contains large quant.i.ties of an unusual fatty acid, erucic acid; and it contains irritating isothiocyanates. Erucic acid causes heart damage in laboratory animals; its significance for human health isn't known. Though our mustard condiments contain the same isothiocyanates as mustard oil, it's possible that daily exposure through foods cooked in the oil could have harmful long-term effects. So far, medical studies are inconclusive. In Asia, it's thought that preheating the oil to the smoking point reduces isothiocyanate content.

Horseradish Horseradish is a west Asian cabbage relative, Horseradish is a west Asian cabbage relative, Armoracia rusticana, Armoracia rusticana, remarkable for large fleshy white roots rich in sinigrin and its volatile pungent compound. Horseradish pungency develops when the raw root is grated, or when the ground dried root is rehydrated. Horseradish doesn't seem to have been cultivated in Europe until the Middle Ages; today it's used as a relish or dressing for meats and seafood, often in the company of cream to take the edge off its strong flavor. remarkable for large fleshy white roots rich in sinigrin and its volatile pungent compound. Horseradish pungency develops when the raw root is grated, or when the ground dried root is rehydrated. Horseradish doesn't seem to have been cultivated in Europe until the Middle Ages; today it's used as a relish or dressing for meats and seafood, often in the company of cream to take the edge off its strong flavor.

Wasabi Wasabi is the enlarged stem of an East Asian cabbage relative that also acc.u.mulates sinigrin as a chemical defense. Wasabi is the enlarged stem of an East Asian cabbage relative that also acc.u.mulates sinigrin as a chemical defense. Wasabia j.a.ponica Wasabia j.a.ponica is a native of j.a.pan and Sakhalin Island, where it grows alongside cool mountain streams. Wasabi is now cultivated in several countries and is occasionally available fresh in the West; whole and partly used roots keep for several weeks in the refrigerator. is a native of j.a.pan and Sakhalin Island, where it grows alongside cool mountain streams. Wasabi is now cultivated in several countries and is occasionally available fresh in the West; whole and partly used roots keep for several weeks in the refrigerator.