Saffron Flavor Saffron flavor is characterized by a notable bitterness and a penetrating, hay-like aroma. It arises largely from another sugar-hydrocarbon combination, picrocrocin, which may be up to 4% of the fresh weight of the stigmas, and is probably a defense against insects and other predators. The combination itself is bitter. When the stigmas dry out and their cell structures are damaged, both the drying heat and an enzyme act on picrocrocin to liberate the hydrocarbon portion, which is a volatile terpene called safra.n.a.l. Drying the saffron stigmas thus moderates the bitterness and develops the aroma. Several chemical relatives of safra.n.a.l round out the overall aroma. Saffron flavor is characterized by a notable bitterness and a penetrating, hay-like aroma. It arises largely from another sugar-hydrocarbon combination, picrocrocin, which may be up to 4% of the fresh weight of the stigmas, and is probably a defense against insects and other predators. The combination itself is bitter. When the stigmas dry out and their cell structures are damaged, both the drying heat and an enzyme act on picrocrocin to liberate the hydrocarbon portion, which is a volatile terpene called safra.n.a.l. Drying the saffron stigmas thus moderates the bitterness and develops the aroma. Several chemical relatives of safra.n.a.l round out the overall aroma.

Using Saffron Saffron is typically used in small quant.i.ties - a few threads, or a "pinch" - and rehydrated in a small amount of warm or hot liquid before being added to a dish, in order to extract both flavor and color. The main pigment is water soluble, but the inclusion of some alcohol or fat in the extraction liquid will dissolve additional fat-soluble carotenoids. Saffron is typically used in small quant.i.ties - a few threads, or a "pinch" - and rehydrated in a small amount of warm or hot liquid before being added to a dish, in order to extract both flavor and color. The main pigment is water soluble, but the inclusion of some alcohol or fat in the extraction liquid will dissolve additional fat-soluble carotenoids.

Saffron's color and flavor molecules are readily altered by light and heat, so this valuable spice is best stored in an airtight container in the freezer.

Sumac Sumac is the small, dried, purplered berry of a shrubby relative ( Sumac is the small, dried, purplered berry of a shrubby relative (Rhus coriaria) of the cashew and mango trees, a native of southwest Asia. Sumac is unusual for being very tart (from malic and other acids), astringent (from abundant tannins, to 4% of its weight), and aromatic, with pine, woody and citrus notes. Sumac is ground and added to a number of savory dishes in the Middle East and North Africa.

A Survey of Tropical Spices Among the tropical spices, family relationships don't readily translate into flavor relationships. I've therefore listed them all in simple alphabetical order. It's interesting to note, though, that the ginger family includes turmeric, galangal, cardamoms, and grains of paradise; and that allspice and clove are members of the myrtle family, and thus relatives of each other and of two strong-scented fruits, guava and feijoa.

Allspice Allspice is the brown, mediumsized dried berry of a tree of the New World tropics. Allspice is the brown, mediumsized dried berry of a tree of the New World tropics. Pimenta dioica Pimenta dioica is a member of the myrtle family and a relative of the clove. Allspice took on its modern name in the 17th century because it was thought to combine the aromas of several spices, and today it's often described as tasting like a mellow combination of clove, cinnamon, and nutmeg. It is indeed rich in clove's eugenol and related phenolic volatiles, with fresh, sweet, and woody notes (but no cinnamon volatiles). The main producer is Jamaica. The berries are picked when green and at the height of flavor, briefly fermented in heaps, "sweated" in bags to accelerate their drying and browning, then sun-dried for five to six days (or machine-dried). Allspice finds notable use in pickling fish, meats, and vegetables, as well as in pie seasonings. is a member of the myrtle family and a relative of the clove. Allspice took on its modern name in the 17th century because it was thought to combine the aromas of several spices, and today it's often described as tasting like a mellow combination of clove, cinnamon, and nutmeg. It is indeed rich in clove's eugenol and related phenolic volatiles, with fresh, sweet, and woody notes (but no cinnamon volatiles). The main producer is Jamaica. The berries are picked when green and at the height of flavor, briefly fermented in heaps, "sweated" in bags to accelerate their drying and browning, then sun-dried for five to six days (or machine-dried). Allspice finds notable use in pickling fish, meats, and vegetables, as well as in pie seasonings.

Annatto Annatto, also known as achiote, is both a flavoring and a colorant. It is the seed of a bush, Annatto, also known as achiote, is both a flavoring and a colorant. It is the seed of a bush, Bixa orellana, Bixa orellana, native to tropical America, and is much used in various cooked dishes from southern Mexico to northern South America. The bright red-orange pigment bixin is found in the waxy coating of the seeds, and readily changes into a number of chemical variants that are different shades of orange, yellow, and red. Some of these are soluble in water, others in oil; large food manufacturers use annatto extracts to give a vivid color to cheddar-style cheeses, b.u.t.ter, and other products. Annatto seeds are hard, and difficult to grind finely, so they're often heated in a liquid to extract their flavor and color and then are strained out. Commercially ground annatto pastes are also available. The aroma of annatto is dominated by the woody, dry terpene humulone, which is also found in hops. native to tropical America, and is much used in various cooked dishes from southern Mexico to northern South America. The bright red-orange pigment bixin is found in the waxy coating of the seeds, and readily changes into a number of chemical variants that are different shades of orange, yellow, and red. Some of these are soluble in water, others in oil; large food manufacturers use annatto extracts to give a vivid color to cheddar-style cheeses, b.u.t.ter, and other products. Annatto seeds are hard, and difficult to grind finely, so they're often heated in a liquid to extract their flavor and color and then are strained out. Commercially ground annatto pastes are also available. The aroma of annatto is dominated by the woody, dry terpene humulone, which is also found in hops.

Cardamom Cardamom is the world's third most expensive spice after saffron and vanilla. It's the seed of a herbaceous plant in the ginger family that is indigenous to the mountains of southwest India, and was grown only there until around1900. German immigrants then brought it to Guatamala, which is now the largest producer. Cardamom seeds are borne in cl.u.s.ters of fibrous capsules that ripen at different times, so the capsules must be picked by hand one by one, and slightly before full ripeness, when the capsule splits. The word comes from an Arabic root meaning "to warm"; and cardamom has a delicate, warming quality due to two different sets of aromatics, both stored in a layer just below the seed surface: a group of floral, fruity, and sweet terpene compounds (linalool and acetate esters), and more penetrating, eucalyptus-like cineole. Cardamom is the world's third most expensive spice after saffron and vanilla. It's the seed of a herbaceous plant in the ginger family that is indigenous to the mountains of southwest India, and was grown only there until around1900. German immigrants then brought it to Guatamala, which is now the largest producer. Cardamom seeds are borne in cl.u.s.ters of fibrous capsules that ripen at different times, so the capsules must be picked by hand one by one, and slightly before full ripeness, when the capsule splits. The word comes from an Arabic root meaning "to warm"; and cardamom has a delicate, warming quality due to two different sets of aromatics, both stored in a layer just below the seed surface: a group of floral, fruity, and sweet terpene compounds (linalool and acetate esters), and more penetrating, eucalyptus-like cineole.

There are two broadly different varieties of cardamom: Malabar, a small, round capsule with a high content of delicate, flowery compounds, and Mysore, a larger, three-angled capsule with mainly pine, woody, and eucalyptus notes. Both are slightly astringent and pungent. Malabar cardamom develops its best flavor after the pods have begun to turn from green to off-white, so it is usually available only in bleached form, after sun-drying or chemical bleaching to make the pod color more uniform. Mysore cardamom is often sold green, its color fixed by a three-hour dose of moderate heat (130F/55C) before drying.

Cardamom is mentioned along with cinnamon in the Old Testament, but doesn't seem to have reached Europe until the Middle Ages. Today the Nordic countries consume 10% of world trade, mainly in baked goods, while Arab countries take 80% for their cardamom coffee. Gahwa Gahwa is made by boiling together freshly roasted and ground coffee with freshly broken green cardamom pods. is made by boiling together freshly roasted and ground coffee with freshly broken green cardamom pods.

Large cardamom, also called Nepal or greater Indian cardamom, is the seed of a cardamom relative, also called Nepal or greater Indian cardamom, is the seed of a cardamom relative, Amomum subulatum, Amomum subulatum, which grows in the eastern Himalayas of North India, Nepal, and Bhutan. (Other species of which grows in the eastern Himalayas of North India, Nepal, and Bhutan. (Other species of Amomum Amomum and and Aframomum Aframomum are also used.) The seeds are borne in a reddish pod an inch/2.5 cm long, with a sweet surrounding pulp. Large cardamom has a strong, harsh flavor for two reasons: much of the crop is smoke-dried, and the seeds are rich in the penetrating terpenes cineole and camphor. Large cardamoms are often used in India, west Asia, and China in savory and rice dishes and in pickles. are also used.) The seeds are borne in a reddish pod an inch/2.5 cm long, with a sweet surrounding pulp. Large cardamom has a strong, harsh flavor for two reasons: much of the crop is smoke-dried, and the seeds are rich in the penetrating terpenes cineole and camphor. Large cardamoms are often used in India, west Asia, and China in savory and rice dishes and in pickles.

Cinnamon Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of trees in the tropical Asian genus Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of trees in the tropical Asian genus Cinnamomum, Cinnamomum, a distant relative of the bay laurel. Its inner bark or phloem layer, which carries nutrients from the leaves toward the roots, contains protective oil cells. When the inner bark is cut and peeled from the new growth of these trees, it curls to form the familiar long "quills" or sticks. Cinnamon was one of the first spices to reach the Mediterranean; the ancient Egyptians used it in embalming, and it's mentioned repeatedly in the Old Testament. Asian and Near Eastern peoples have long used cinnamon to flavor meat dishes, and thanks to the influence of the Arabs, medieval European cooks did too. Nowadays most cinnamon goes into sweet dishes and candies. a distant relative of the bay laurel. Its inner bark or phloem layer, which carries nutrients from the leaves toward the roots, contains protective oil cells. When the inner bark is cut and peeled from the new growth of these trees, it curls to form the familiar long "quills" or sticks. Cinnamon was one of the first spices to reach the Mediterranean; the ancient Egyptians used it in embalming, and it's mentioned repeatedly in the Old Testament. Asian and Near Eastern peoples have long used cinnamon to flavor meat dishes, and thanks to the influence of the Arabs, medieval European cooks did too. Nowadays most cinnamon goes into sweet dishes and candies.

There are several different species of Cinnamomum Cinnamomum that provide aromatic bark, but cinnamons fall into two general categories. One is Ceylon or Sri Lankan cinnamon (from that provide aromatic bark, but cinnamons fall into two general categories. One is Ceylon or Sri Lankan cinnamon (from C. verum C. verum or or zeylanic.u.m zeylanic.u.m), light brown in color, papery and brittle, coiled in a single spiral, and with a mild, delicate cinnamon flavor often described as sweet. The other is the Southeast Asian or Chinesecinnamon, often called ca.s.sia, which is typically thick and hard, forming a double spiral, darker in color and much stronger in flavor, bitter and somewhat harsh and burning, as in the American "red-hot" candy. These cinnamons come mainly from China (C. ca.s.sia), Vietnam (C. loureirii), and Indonesia (C. burmanii). Ca.s.sia types are preferred in most of the world, Sri Lankan types in Latin America. The typical hot, spicy cinnamon aroma comes from a phenolic compound, cinnamaldehyde, of which ca.s.sia types have significantly more than Sri Lankan types; the latter are more subtle and complex, with floral and clove notes (linalool, eugenol).

Cloves Cloves are among the most distinctive and strongest of all spices. They're the dried immature flower buds of a tree in the myrtle family, Cloves are among the most distinctive and strongest of all spices. They're the dried immature flower buds of a tree in the myrtle family, Syzygium aromatic.u.m, Syzygium aromatic.u.m, which is native to a few islands in present-day Indonesia. Cloves were enjoyed in China 2,200 years ago, but weren't much used in European foods until the Middle Ages. Today Indonesia and Madagascar are the biggest producers. which is native to a few islands in present-day Indonesia. Cloves were enjoyed in China 2,200 years ago, but weren't much used in European foods until the Middle Ages. Today Indonesia and Madagascar are the biggest producers.

The flower buds of the clove tree are picked just before they open, and then dried for several days. Their distinctiveness results from a high content of the phenolic compound called eugenol, which has a unique aroma that is both somewhat sweet and very penetrating. Clove buds contain the highest concentration of aroma molecules of any spice. They are as much as 17% volatile chemicals by weight, most of this stored just under the surface of the elongated portion, in the flower cap, and in the delicate filaments of the stamens within. The oil is about 85% eugenol. Thanks mainly to eugenol, clove oil is good at suppressing microbes, and it temporarily numbs our nerve endings, properties that have led to its use in mouthwashes and dental products.

In much of the world cloves flavor meat dishes, while Europeans use them mainly in sweets. Cloves are an important element in a number of spice mixes (see box, p. 398). By far their largest role is in the Indonesian flavored cigarette, kretek, which may be 40% shredded clove.

Galangal Galangal is a name given to the underground stem, or rhizome, of two Asian ginger relatives, Galangal is a name given to the underground stem, or rhizome, of two Asian ginger relatives, Alpinia galanga Alpinia galanga or greater galangal, and or greater galangal, and Alpinia officinarum Alpinia officinarum or lesser galangal. The former, sometimes also called Thai ginger, is the more prized and common. Galangal is more austere than ginger, pungent and with overtones of eucalyptus, pine, clove, and camphor, but none of ginger's lemony character. In Thai and other Southeast Asian cuisines it's often combined with lemongra.s.s and many other aromatics. Galangal is also an ingredient in Chartreuse, bitters, and some soft drinks. or lesser galangal. The former, sometimes also called Thai ginger, is the more prized and common. Galangal is more austere than ginger, pungent and with overtones of eucalyptus, pine, clove, and camphor, but none of ginger's lemony character. In Thai and other Southeast Asian cuisines it's often combined with lemongra.s.s and many other aromatics. Galangal is also an ingredient in Chartreuse, bitters, and some soft drinks.

Ginger Ginger is the pungent, aromatic rhizome of a herbaceous tropical plant, Ginger is the pungent, aromatic rhizome of a herbaceous tropical plant, Zingiber officinale, Zingiber officinale, that is distantly related to the banana. It lends its name to a family of about 45 genera that are found throughout the tropics, and that include galangal, grains of paradise, cardamom, and turmeric. The name comes via Latin from the Sanskrit that is distantly related to the banana. It lends its name to a family of about 45 genera that are found throughout the tropics, and that include galangal, grains of paradise, cardamom, and turmeric. The name comes via Latin from the Sanskrit singabera, singabera, meaning horns or antlers, which the branched rhizomes resemble. meaning horns or antlers, which the branched rhizomes resemble.

Ginger was domesticated in prehistoric times somewhere in southern Asia, had been brought in dried form to the Mediterranean by cla.s.sical Greek times, and was one of the most important spices in medieval Europe. The cake known as gingerbread dates from this time; ginger beer and ginger ale from the 19th century, when English taverns sprinkled powdered ginger on their drinks.

To make the dried spice, mature rhizomes are cleaned, sc.r.a.ped to remove most of the skin, sometimes treated with lime or acid to bleach them, and then dried in the sun or a machine. Dried ginger is about 40% starch by weight. Today the main producers of dried ginger are India and China, while Jamaican ginger is considered one of the finest. A surprisingly large fraction of the ginger trade goes to Yemen, where it is added to coffee (as much as 15% of the coffee's weight).

In Asia, and increasingly in the rest of the world, ginger is used fresh. Most fresh ginger in the United States now comes from Hawaii, where the main harvest runs from December to June. Fresh ginger contains a protein-digesting enzyme that can cause problems in gelatin-based preparations (p. 607).

Ginger Aromas Ginger has a remarkable culinary range, flavoring sausages and fish dishes as well as sodas and sweets. It has something of the quality of lemon juice in that it adds a refreshing, bright aroma - from fresh, floral, citrus, woody, and eucalyptus notes - and mild, pepper-like pungency that complements other flavors without dominating them. Gingers from different parts of the world have different qualities. Chinese ginger tends to be mainly pungent; South Indian and Australian gingers have a notable quant.i.ty of citral and so a more distinctly lemony aroma; Jamaican ginger is delicate and sweet, African ginger penetrating. Ginger has a remarkable culinary range, flavoring sausages and fish dishes as well as sodas and sweets. It has something of the quality of lemon juice in that it adds a refreshing, bright aroma - from fresh, floral, citrus, woody, and eucalyptus notes - and mild, pepper-like pungency that complements other flavors without dominating them. Gingers from different parts of the world have different qualities. Chinese ginger tends to be mainly pungent; South Indian and Australian gingers have a notable quant.i.ty of citral and so a more distinctly lemony aroma; Jamaican ginger is delicate and sweet, African ginger penetrating.

Ginger Pungency Is Variable The pungency of ginger and members of its family comes from the gingerols, chemical relatives of the chilli's capsaicin and black pepper's piperine (p. 394). The gingerols are the least powerful of the group, and the most easily altered by drying and cooking. When ginger is dried, its gingerol molecules lose a small side group of atoms and are transformed into shogaols, which are about twice as pungent: so dried ginger is stronger than fresh. Cooking reduces ginger pungency by transforming some gingerols and shogaols into zingerone, which is only slightly pungent and has a sweet-spicy aroma. The pungency of ginger and members of its family comes from the gingerols, chemical relatives of the chilli's capsaicin and black pepper's piperine (p. 394). The gingerols are the least powerful of the group, and the most easily altered by drying and cooking. When ginger is dried, its gingerol molecules lose a small side group of atoms and are transformed into shogaols, which are about twice as pungent: so dried ginger is stronger than fresh. Cooking reduces ginger pungency by transforming some gingerols and shogaols into zingerone, which is only slightly pungent and has a sweet-spicy aroma.

Grains of Paradise Grains of paradise, guinea grains, alligator pepper, and melegueta pepper are all names for the small seeds of Grains of paradise, guinea grains, alligator pepper, and melegueta pepper are all names for the small seeds of Aframomum melegueta. Aframomum melegueta. This member of the ginger family is a native of West Africa, and was used in Europe from the Middle Ages until the 19th century, when it became a rarity. It's both somewhat pungent from gingerol and relatives (paradols, shogaols), and faintly but pleasantly aromatic, with woody and evergreen notes (humulone and caryophyllene). It is a component of the Moroccan spice mixture ras el hanout, and can serve as an interesting alternative to black pepper. This member of the ginger family is a native of West Africa, and was used in Europe from the Middle Ages until the 19th century, when it became a rarity. It's both somewhat pungent from gingerol and relatives (paradols, shogaols), and faintly but pleasantly aromatic, with woody and evergreen notes (humulone and caryophyllene). It is a component of the Moroccan spice mixture ras el hanout, and can serve as an interesting alternative to black pepper.

Mace and Nutmeg Mace and nutmeg have similar aromas and come from the same source: the fruit of a tropical Asian tree, Mace and nutmeg have similar aromas and come from the same source: the fruit of a tropical Asian tree, Myristica fragrans, Myristica fragrans, which appears to have originated in New Guinea. Along with cloves, nutmeg put the Spice Islands, the Malaccas that are now part of Indonesia, on the maps of European sea powers. The Portuguese and then the Dutch monopolized the nutmeg trade until the 19th century, when the tree was successfully planted in the Caribbean and elsewhere. Nutmeg and mace didn't make much of an impression on European foods until the Middle Ages. Today they provide the characteristic flavoring for doughnuts and eggnog, and are added to hot dogs and other sausages. Nutmeg is also an important element of the cla.s.sic French bechamel sauce. which appears to have originated in New Guinea. Along with cloves, nutmeg put the Spice Islands, the Malaccas that are now part of Indonesia, on the maps of European sea powers. The Portuguese and then the Dutch monopolized the nutmeg trade until the 19th century, when the tree was successfully planted in the Caribbean and elsewhere. Nutmeg and mace didn't make much of an impression on European foods until the Middle Ages. Today they provide the characteristic flavoring for doughnuts and eggnog, and are added to hot dogs and other sausages. Nutmeg is also an important element of the cla.s.sic French bechamel sauce.

Both nutmeg and mace are borne inside the plum-to peach-sized fruits of the tree. When the fruit is ripe, it splits to reveal a shiny, brown-black sh.e.l.l; and entwined around the sh.e.l.l, a narrow, irregular, bright red ribbon. The red ribbon is an aril, a fruit part whose color and sugars attract birds to carry it and the seed away. The aril is the spice called mace, and the seed inside the sh.e.l.l is the nutmeg. The aril is removed from the sh.e.l.l and dried separately. The aroma compounds in nutmeg are concentrated in a layer of oil-containing tissue that weaves through the seed's main body of starchy and fatty storage tissue, which also contains astringent tannins.

Nutmeg and mace have similar but distinct flavors, with mace the gentler and more rounded. Both spices carry fresh, pine, flowery, and citrus notes, but are dominated by woody, warm, somewhat peppery myristicin (also a minor component in fresh dill). Grated nutmeg includes tannic particles of the main seed storage tissue, and is also darker in color than powdered mace. Nutmeg has generally been put to use in sweets and dishes based on cream, milk, and eggs; mace in meat dishes as well as pickles and ketchups. Their flavors tend to become unpleasant with prolonged heat, so they're often grated over a dish at the last minute.

Nutmeg is reputed to have hallucinogenic effects if several grated seeds are consumed at once. Myristicin has been suggested as the active ingredient, but the evidence is scanty.

Black Pepper and Relatives Black pepper was one of the first spices to be traded westward from Asia, and today it remains the preeminent spice in Europe and North America. We think of it as a basic seasoning, like salt, and use its moderate pungency and pleasant aroma to fill out the flavor of many savory dishes, often just before eating them. Pepper is native to the tropical coastal mountains of southwest India, where sea and overland trade with the ancient world began at least 3,500 years ago. It is mentioned in Egyptian papyruses, was well known to the Greeks, and a popular spice in Rome. During this time it was largely gathered from wild forest plants, though sometime before the 7th century the vine was transplanted to the Malay archipelago, Java, and Sumatra. Black pepper was one of the first spices to be traded westward from Asia, and today it remains the preeminent spice in Europe and North America. We think of it as a basic seasoning, like salt, and use its moderate pungency and pleasant aroma to fill out the flavor of many savory dishes, often just before eating them. Pepper is native to the tropical coastal mountains of southwest India, where sea and overland trade with the ancient world began at least 3,500 years ago. It is mentioned in Egyptian papyruses, was well known to the Greeks, and a popular spice in Rome. During this time it was largely gathered from wild forest plants, though sometime before the 7th century the vine was transplanted to the Malay archipelago, Java, and Sumatra.

Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route from Europe to southwest India in 1498, and the Portuguese subsequently controlled exports of black pepper for several decades. They were followed by the Dutch and, beginning around 1635, the British, who established pepper plantations. In the 20th century, a number of countries in South America and Africa began producing black pepper. Today India, Indonesia, and Brazil are the major world sources.

Pepper Production Black pepper is the small dried berry of a climbing vine in the genus Black pepper is the small dried berry of a climbing vine in the genus Piper, Piper, which includes a number of other spice and herb plants (see box, p. 429). The berries of which includes a number of other spice and herb plants (see box, p. 429). The berries of Piper nigrum Piper nigrum form on a flower spike a few centimeters long, and take about six months to mature. As berries mature and ripen, their content of pungent piperine continuously increases, while their aromatics reach a peak and then decline. Fully ripe berries may contain less than half of the aroma that they had at the late green stage. The ripe berry skin is red, but turns dark brown to black after harvest thanks to the activity of browning enzymes. The inner seed is largely starch, with some oil, from 39% pungent piperine, and 23% volatile oil. form on a flower spike a few centimeters long, and take about six months to mature. As berries mature and ripen, their content of pungent piperine continuously increases, while their aromatics reach a peak and then decline. Fully ripe berries may contain less than half of the aroma that they had at the late green stage. The ripe berry skin is red, but turns dark brown to black after harvest thanks to the activity of browning enzymes. The inner seed is largely starch, with some oil, from 39% pungent piperine, and 23% volatile oil.

Black, White, Green, and Rose-Colored Peppers Peppers Pepper berries are processed to make several different versions of the spice. Pepper berries are processed to make several different versions of the spice.

Black and white pepper. Pepper comes from the small fruits of a tropical vine. Black pepper is made by drying the whole fruit; the wrinkled dark outer coating is the dried fleshy fruit layer. White pepper is made by removing the fleshy layer before drying the seed.

Black pepper, the most common, is made from mature but unripe berries, still green and rich in aromatics. The berry spikes are harvested from the vines and the berries threshed from the spikes. The berries are then blanched for a minute in hot water to clean them and rupture the cells of the fruit layer to speed the work of the browning enzymes. Finally they're sun-or machine-dried for several days, during which the outer fruit layer darkens.

White pepper consists of the pepper seed only, without the outer fruit layer. It's made from fully ripe berries, which are soaked in water for a week to allow the fruit layer to be degraded by bacteria, then rubbed to remove the fruit layer, and finally dried. White pepper is mainly valued for providing pungency while remaining invisible in light-colored sauces and other preparations. It was developed into a major commercial product in Indonesia, which is still its major producer.

Green pepper is made from berries harvested a week or more before they would otherwise begin to ripen. The berries are simply preserved by treating with sulfur dioxide and dehydration, by canning or bottling in brine, or by freeze-drying. The flavor depends on the method of preservation, but includes some pungency and pepper aromatics as well as a fresh green-leaf note.

Pink pepper, or poivre rose, poivre rose, is a rarity made by preserving just-ripened red berries in brine and vinegar. (Pink peppercorns are entirely different; see below.) is a rarity made by preserving just-ripened red berries in brine and vinegar. (Pink peppercorns are entirely different; see below.) Pepper Flavor The main pungent compound in pepper is piperine, which is found in the thin fruit layer and the surface layers of the seed. Piperine is about 100 times less pungent than the capsaicin in chillis. The major aroma components in black pepper (the terpenes pinene, sabinene, limonene, caryophyllene, linalool) create an overall impression that is fresh, citrusy, woody, warm, and floral. White pepper is about as pungent as black pepper, but lacks much of its aroma due to the removal of the outer fruit layer. It often has musty and horse-stable notes, probably from the prolonged fermentation of the fruit layer (skatole, cresol). The main pungent compound in pepper is piperine, which is found in the thin fruit layer and the surface layers of the seed. Piperine is about 100 times less pungent than the capsaicin in chillis. The major aroma components in black pepper (the terpenes pinene, sabinene, limonene, caryophyllene, linalool) create an overall impression that is fresh, citrusy, woody, warm, and floral. White pepper is about as pungent as black pepper, but lacks much of its aroma due to the removal of the outer fruit layer. It often has musty and horse-stable notes, probably from the prolonged fermentation of the fruit layer (skatole, cresol).

Pepper is used in the form of whole "corns" in preparations that allow time to extract their flavor: such things as pickles and preserves, and some stocks and sauces. Grinding the peppercorns allows their flavor to be extracted faster for last-minute adjustments. Grinding also frees their aromatics to evaporate, so the most and freshest flavor comes from whole peppercorns ground directly into the preparation. Even whole peppercorns lose much of their aroma after a month in a grinder. Some cooks briefly toast them in a hot pan to enrich their aroma.

Pepper is best stored tightly sealed in the cold and dark. If exposed to light during storage, it loses its pungency because the light energy rearranges piperine to form a nearly tasteless molecule (isochavicine).

Pink Peppercorns Pink peppercorns are fruits of the Brazilian pepper tree, Pink peppercorns are fruits of the Brazilian pepper tree, Schinus terebinthifolius, Schinus terebinthifolius, which was brought to the southern United States as an ornamental and has become an invasive pest. Its attractive pink fruits were first marketed as a kind of pepper in the 1980s. The tree is in the cashew and mango family, which also includes poison ivy and poison oak, and its brittle, peppercorn-sized fruits contain cardanol, an irritating phenolic compound that limits its usefulness in foods. Pink peppercorns have fresh, pine, citrus, and sweet aroma notes thanks to several terpenes. A close relative from Peru, which was brought to the southern United States as an ornamental and has become an invasive pest. Its attractive pink fruits were first marketed as a kind of pepper in the 1980s. The tree is in the cashew and mango family, which also includes poison ivy and poison oak, and its brittle, peppercorn-sized fruits contain cardanol, an irritating phenolic compound that limits its usefulness in foods. Pink peppercorns have fresh, pine, citrus, and sweet aroma notes thanks to several terpenes. A close relative from Peru, S. molle, S. molle, is also grown as an ornamental and is called the California pepper tree. Its fruits have a more resinous aroma (thanks to myrcene), with less irritant cardanol. is also grown as an ornamental and is called the California pepper tree. Its fruits have a more resinous aroma (thanks to myrcene), with less irritant cardanol.

Sichuan Pepper, Sansho The Chinese spice known as Sichuan pepper and the j.a.panese sans...o...b..th offer a strange and interesting version of pungency. They come from two small trees in the citrus family sometimes called "p.r.i.c.kly ash." Sichuan pepper trees are The Chinese spice known as Sichuan pepper and the j.a.panese sans...o...b..th offer a strange and interesting version of pungency. They come from two small trees in the citrus family sometimes called "p.r.i.c.kly ash." Sichuan pepper trees are Zanthoxylum simulans Zanthoxylum simulans or or Z. bungeanum, Z. bungeanum, and sansho trees are and sansho trees are Zanthoxylum piperitum. Zanthoxylum piperitum. ( (Xanthoxylum is another spelling.) The spices are the small dried fruit rinds, which are aromatic with lemony citronellal and citronellol. The pungent compounds, the sanshools, are members of the same family as piperine from black pepper and capsaicin from chillis. But the sanshools aren't simply pungent. They produce a strange, tingling, buzzing, numbing sensation that is something like the effect of carbonated drinks or of a mild electrical current (touching the terminals of a nine-volt battery to the tongue). Sanshools appear to act on several different kinds of nerve endings at once, induce sensitivity to touch and cold in nerves that are ordinarily nonsensitive, and so perhaps cause a kind of general neurological confusion. is another spelling.) The spices are the small dried fruit rinds, which are aromatic with lemony citronellal and citronellol. The pungent compounds, the sanshools, are members of the same family as piperine from black pepper and capsaicin from chillis. But the sanshools aren't simply pungent. They produce a strange, tingling, buzzing, numbing sensation that is something like the effect of carbonated drinks or of a mild electrical current (touching the terminals of a nine-volt battery to the tongue). Sanshools appear to act on several different kinds of nerve endings at once, induce sensitivity to touch and cold in nerves that are ordinarily nonsensitive, and so perhaps cause a kind of general neurological confusion.

The Chinese and j.a.panese versions of this spice are different. Chinese Sichuan peppercorns are always toasted, so their citrus affinities are overshadowed by browned, woody notes that go well with meats. j.a.panese sansho is distinctly lemony, and is used to mask or balance the fattiness of some fish and meats. These spices are almost always used as part of a mixture.

Sandalwood Sandalwood is more familiar in incense than in foods, but the roots and heartwood of the tree Sandalwood is more familiar in incense than in foods, but the roots and heartwood of the tree Santalum alb.u.m Santalum alb.u.m are sometimes used in India to flavor sweets. Its aroma comes mainly from santalol, which has woody, floral, milky, musky qualities. are sometimes used in India to flavor sweets. Its aroma comes mainly from santalol, which has woody, floral, milky, musky qualities.

Some Relatives of PepperThere are about a thousand different species in the genus Piper, Piper, and many relatives of and many relatives of Piper nigrum Piper nigrum have been also been used as food flavorings, including the herbs hoja santa and lolot (pp. 409, 410). Other notable pepper relatives include the following: have been also been used as food flavorings, including the herbs hoja santa and lolot (pp. 409, 410). Other notable pepper relatives include the following: Long pepper (Piper longum). This native of India was probably the first pungent spice after mustard to be appreciated in Europe - the Greeks and Romans preferred it to black pepper - and it gave us our word pepper pepper via its Sanskrit name via its Sanskrit name pippali pippali (black pepper is (black pepper is marichi marichi). Long pepper is so called because it is the entire flower spike with tiny fruits embedded in its surface. It has a somewhat more pungent taste (due to a larger supply of piperine), and a woody aroma. Today it's mainly used in vegetable pickles, though it's also found in some North African spice mixtures. Another plant called long pepper is Piper retrofractum, Piper retrofractum, a native of Java and still used in Indonesia and Malaysia. It is said to be more aromatic than Indian long pepper a native of Java and still used in Indonesia and Malaysia. It is said to be more aromatic than Indian long pepper Cubeb or tailed pepper (P. cubeba). This version of pepper consists of individual berries and their tail-like stems. It is a native of Indonesia, and was used in European cooking in the 17th century; in its home region it still flavors sauces, liquors, lozenges, and cigarettes. In addition to pungency, it has fresh, eucalyptus, woody, spicy, and floral aromatics.

Ashanti pepper (P. guineense). In West Africa this spice lends nutmeg and sa.s.safras notes to various dishes.

Betel leaf (P. betle). The clove-scented leaves of this Asian pepper species have long been wrapped around other ingredients into a bite-sized packet and chewed. The Indian packet, supari, includes lime, the betel nut from the areca palm, and sometimes tobacco.

Star Anise Star anise is the strikingly star-shaped woody fruit of a tree in the magnolia family, Star anise is the strikingly star-shaped woody fruit of a tree in the magnolia family, Illicium verum, Illicium verum, a native of South China and Indochina. Its anise flavor comes from the same phenolic chemical, anethole, that flavors the entirely unrelated European anise (p. 414). The fruit itself, which may have six to eight chambers, carries more of the flavor than the seeds, and the unripe fruit is traditionally chewed as a breath sweetener. One traditional and important use of star anise is in Chinese meat dishes simmered in soy sauce; when onions are included, the result is the production of sulfur-phenolic aromatics that intensify the meatiness of the dish. a native of South China and Indochina. Its anise flavor comes from the same phenolic chemical, anethole, that flavors the entirely unrelated European anise (p. 414). The fruit itself, which may have six to eight chambers, carries more of the flavor than the seeds, and the unripe fruit is traditionally chewed as a breath sweetener. One traditional and important use of star anise is in Chinese meat dishes simmered in soy sauce; when onions are included, the result is the production of sulfur-phenolic aromatics that intensify the meatiness of the dish.

Tamarind Tamarind is the fibrous, sticky, aromatic, and intensely sour pulp that surrounds the seeds in pods of Tamarind is the fibrous, sticky, aromatic, and intensely sour pulp that surrounds the seeds in pods of Tamarindus indica, Tamarindus indica, a tree in the bean family native to Africa and Madagascar. The pulp can be extracted by soaking it in water for a few minutes, squeezing the fibrous ma.s.s, and straining off the flavored water; tamarind extract is also manufactured and sold as a thick paste. The pulp is about 20% acids, mainly tartaric, 3550% sugars, and about 30% moisture, and has a complex, savory, roasted aroma thanks to browning reactions that take place on the tree as the pulp becomes concentrated in the hot sun. In much of Asia, tamarind is used to acidify and flavor sweet-sour preserves, sauces, soups, and drinks. Tamarind is also popular in the Middle East, and it's one of the defining ingredients in Worcestershire sauce. a tree in the bean family native to Africa and Madagascar. The pulp can be extracted by soaking it in water for a few minutes, squeezing the fibrous ma.s.s, and straining off the flavored water; tamarind extract is also manufactured and sold as a thick paste. The pulp is about 20% acids, mainly tartaric, 3550% sugars, and about 30% moisture, and has a complex, savory, roasted aroma thanks to browning reactions that take place on the tree as the pulp becomes concentrated in the hot sun. In much of Asia, tamarind is used to acidify and flavor sweet-sour preserves, sauces, soups, and drinks. Tamarind is also popular in the Middle East, and it's one of the defining ingredients in Worcestershire sauce.

Turmeric Turmeric is the dried underground stem, or rhizome, of a herbaceous tropical plant in the ginger family, Turmeric is the dried underground stem, or rhizome, of a herbaceous tropical plant in the ginger family, Curc.u.ma longa. Curc.u.ma longa. It appears to have been domesticated in prehistoric times in India, probably for its deep yellow pigment ( It appears to have been domesticated in prehistoric times in India, probably for its deep yellow pigment (curc.u.ma comes from the Sanskrit for "yellow"). Turmeric has long been used to color skin, clothing, and foods for ceremonies surrounding marriage and death. In the United States, the main use of turmeric is to provide color and nonpungent filler in prepared mustards. It's also the major component of most prepared curry powders, making up 2550% of their weight. comes from the Sanskrit for "yellow"). Turmeric has long been used to color skin, clothing, and foods for ceremonies surrounding marriage and death. In the United States, the main use of turmeric is to provide color and nonpungent filler in prepared mustards. It's also the major component of most prepared curry powders, making up 2550% of their weight.

The major pigment in turmeric is a phenolic compound called curc.u.min, which turns out to be an excellent antioxidant. This may explain why turmeric is considered to have preservative properties; in India fish and other foods are often first dusted with it before cooking, and it goes into many prepared dishes. The color of curc.u.min is sensitive to pH. In acid conditions it's yellow, while in alkaline conditions it turns orange-red.

To make the spice, turmeric rhizomes are steamed or boiled in slightly alkaline water to set the color and precook the abundant starch, then sun-dried. Turmeric is usually sold preground, though fresh and dried rhizomes can be found in ethnic markets. Turmeric has a woody, dry earth aroma (from mildly aromatic terpenes called turmerone and zingiberene), with slight bitterness and pungency.

Vanilla Vanilla is one of the most popular flavorings in the world. Among the spices it's unique for the richness, depth, and persistence of its flavor. And it's the second most costly, after saffron. So in fact most of the vanilla flavoring consumed in the world today is a synthetic imitation of the original spice. Vanilla is one of the most popular flavorings in the world. Among the spices it's unique for the richness, depth, and persistence of its flavor. And it's the second most costly, after saffron. So in fact most of the vanilla flavoring consumed in the world today is a synthetic imitation of the original spice.

True vanilla comes from the pod fruit, often called the "bean," of a climbing orchid native to Central and northern South America. There are about 100 species in the tropical genus Vanilla. V. planifolia Vanilla. V. planifolia(or V. fragrans V. fragrans) was first cultivated by the Totonac Indians along the eastern coast of Mexico near Veracruz, perhaps as long as 1,000 years ago. They sent it north to the Aztecs, who flavored their chocolate drinks with it (p. 695). The first Europeans to taste vanilla were the Spanish, who gave it its name; vainilla vainilla is the Spanish diminutive for "sheath" or "husk" (from the Latin is the Spanish diminutive for "sheath" or "husk" (from the Latin v.a.g.i.n.a v.a.g.i.n.a). A 19th-century Belgian botanist, Charles Morren, figured out how to pollinate vanilla flowers by hand, and thus made it possible to produce the spice in regions that lacked the proper pollinating insects. And the French took the vine to the islands off the coast of southeast Africa that now supply much of the world: Madagascar, Reunion, and Comoros, which collectively produce what is called Bourbon vanilla.

Today, Indonesia and Madagascar are the world's largest producers. It's the attentive and extensive labor required to hand-pollinate the vanilla flowers and cure the pods, and the low production of the few regions that cultivate it, that make vanilla so expensive.

Vanilla's rich flavor is the creation of three factors: the pod's wealth of phenolic defensive compounds, preeminently vanillin; a good supply of sugars and amino acids to generate browning-reaction flavors; and the curing process. The plant stores most of its defensive aromatics in inert form by bonding them to a sugar molecule. The active defenses - and aromas - are released when damage to the pod brings the storage forms into contact with bond-breaking enzymes. The key to making good vanilla is thus deliberate damage to the pods, followed by a prolonged drying process that develops and concentrates the flavor, and prevents the pod from spoiling.

Making Vanilla The making of vanilla begins six to nine months after the orchid flowers have been pollinated, with green pods 610 inches/1525 cm long that are just beginning to ripen. On the pod's inner walls, thousands of tiny seeds are embedded in a complex mixture of sugars, fats, amino acids, and phenolic-sugar storage compounds. The enzymes that can liberate the aromatic phenolics from storage are concentrated closer to the outer walls. The first step in curing is to kill the pod so that it doesn't use up its sugars and amino acids, and to damage the pod's cells and allow the phenolic storage compounds to migrate to the liberating enzymes. Both of these goals are accomplished by briefly exposing the pods to high temperatures, either in the sun or in hot water or steam. The cell damage that this causes also allows the browning enzymes (polyphenoloxidases, p. 269) to cl.u.s.ter some phenolic compounds together into colored aggregates, so the pod color changes from green to brown. The making of vanilla begins six to nine months after the orchid flowers have been pollinated, with green pods 610 inches/1525 cm long that are just beginning to ripen. On the pod's inner walls, thousands of tiny seeds are embedded in a complex mixture of sugars, fats, amino acids, and phenolic-sugar storage compounds. The enzymes that can liberate the aromatic phenolics from storage are concentrated closer to the outer walls. The first step in curing is to kill the pod so that it doesn't use up its sugars and amino acids, and to damage the pod's cells and allow the phenolic storage compounds to migrate to the liberating enzymes. Both of these goals are accomplished by briefly exposing the pods to high temperatures, either in the sun or in hot water or steam. The cell damage that this causes also allows the browning enzymes (polyphenoloxidases, p. 269) to cl.u.s.ter some phenolic compounds together into colored aggregates, so the pod color changes from green to brown.

Then follow several days during which the pods are alternately exposed to the sun until they're almost too hot to handle, then wrapped in cloth to "sweat" with the residual heat. During this stage, the main flavor components of vanilla - vanillin and related phenolic molecules - are freed from their bondage to sugar molecules. The heat and sunlight also evaporate some of the pod moisture, discourage microbial growth on the humid surface, and generate pigments and complex aromas via browning reactions between sugars and amino acids (p.778). It takes 3 to 5 pounds of fresh pods to produce 1 pound of cured beans.

Pods of the vanilla orchid. The fresh pod contains thousands of tiny seeds embedded in a sticky resin of sugars, amino acids, and a storage form of the main vanilla aroma compound, vanillin. The process of drying and curing the pod frees the vanillin and creates additional aroma molecules.

In the last stage of vanilla processing, the pods are straightened and smoothed by hand, dried for several weeks, then "aged," or stored for some time to develop flavor further (flavor compounds react with oxygen, some heat-resistant enzymes, and each other to form fruity esters and other new notes). In Madagascar, vanilla curing takes 3540 days, while the Mexican process lasts several months.

The Flavors of Vanilla The cured pod is about 20% water by weight, 20% fiber, 25% sugars, 15% fat, and the remainder amino acids, phenolic compounds, other flavors, and brown pigments. The sugars provide sweetness, free amino acids provide some savoriness, fat richness, and tannins some astringency. The aroma of natural vanilla is complex. More than 200 different volatile compounds have been found in vanilla beans. The princ.i.p.al one, the phenolic compound vanillin, does suggest vanilla on its own, but without the whole spice's richness. Some of the other important vanilla volatiles contribute flavor notes described as woody, floral, green-leaf, tobacco, dried-fruit, clove-like, honey-like, caramel, smoky, earthy, and b.u.t.tery. The cured pod is about 20% water by weight, 20% fiber, 25% sugars, 15% fat, and the remainder amino acids, phenolic compounds, other flavors, and brown pigments. The sugars provide sweetness, free amino acids provide some savoriness, fat richness, and tannins some astringency. The aroma of natural vanilla is complex. More than 200 different volatile compounds have been found in vanilla beans. The princ.i.p.al one, the phenolic compound vanillin, does suggest vanilla on its own, but without the whole spice's richness. Some of the other important vanilla volatiles contribute flavor notes described as woody, floral, green-leaf, tobacco, dried-fruit, clove-like, honey-like, caramel, smoky, earthy, and b.u.t.tery.

Kinds of Vanilla The different vanilla-producing regions produce beans with broadly different flavors. Bourbon vanilla from Madagascar and neighboring islands is generally considered to be the finest, with the richest, most balanced flavor. Indonesian beans seem lighter, with less vanillin, and sometimes smoky qualities. Mexican beans contain about half the vanillin of Bourbon beans, and have distinctive fruity and winy aromas. Rare Tahitian vanilla beans - from a different species, The different vanilla-producing regions produce beans with broadly different flavors. Bourbon vanilla from Madagascar and neighboring islands is generally considered to be the finest, with the richest, most balanced flavor. Indonesian beans seem lighter, with less vanillin, and sometimes smoky qualities. Mexican beans contain about half the vanillin of Bourbon beans, and have distinctive fruity and winy aromas. Rare Tahitian vanilla beans - from a different species, V. tahitensis, V. tahitensis, also have much less vanillin than Bourbon beans, but carry unique flowery and perfumed notes. also have much less vanillin than Bourbon beans, but carry unique flowery and perfumed notes.

Vanilla Extracts and Flavorings Vanilla extracts are made by chopping whole vanilla beans and repeatedly pa.s.sing a mixture of alcohol and water over them for several days, then aging the extract to develop a more complex, full flavor. Vanillin and the other flavor components are more soluble in alcohol than water, so the higher the flavor content desired in the extract, the higher the proportion of alcohol necessary to carry it. Vanilla extracts are made by chopping whole vanilla beans and repeatedly pa.s.sing a mixture of alcohol and water over them for several days, then aging the extract to develop a more complex, full flavor. Vanillin and the other flavor components are more soluble in alcohol than water, so the higher the flavor content desired in the extract, the higher the proportion of alcohol necessary to carry it.

Artificial vanilla flavoring contains synthetic vanillin made from various industrial by-products, especially wood lignin, and doesn't have the full, complex, subtle flavor of whole vanilla beans or their extracts. The demand for vanilla flavoring far exceeds the available crop, and natural vanillin costs about 100 times more than synthetic. About 90% of the vanilla flavoring consumed in the United States is artificial; in France, about 50%.

The Virtues of VanillinIn addition to making vanilla taste like vanilla, vanillin is formed during certain cooking and manufacturing procedures, especially those involving wood fires and wood barrels (pp. 448, 721). It thus contributes to the flavor of such foods as grilled and smoked meats, wines and whiskeys, bread, and boiled peanuts. Vanillin also has several potentially useful biological properties. It is toxic to many microbes, an antioxidant, and inhibits DNA damage.

Cooking with Vanilla Vanilla is used mainly in sweet foods. Almost half of the vanilla flavoring consumed in the United States goes into ice cream, and much of the rest into soft drinks and chocolate. But it also works in savory dishes: lobster and pork are popular examples. Added with a light touch, vanilla can contribute a sense of depth, warmth, roundness, and persistence to almost any food. Vanilla is used mainly in sweet foods. Almost half of the vanilla flavoring consumed in the United States goes into ice cream, and much of the rest into soft drinks and chocolate. But it also works in savory dishes: lobster and pork are popular examples. Added with a light touch, vanilla can contribute a sense of depth, warmth, roundness, and persistence to almost any food.

The flavor of the whole vanilla bean resides in two different parts of the bean: the sticky, resinous material in which the tiny seeds are embedded, and the fibrous pod wall. The first is easily sc.r.a.ped out of the bean and dispersed in a preparation, while the pod itself must be soaked for some time in order to extract its flavor. Because the volatiles are generally more soluble in fat than in water, the cook can extract more flavor if the extraction liquid includes either alcohol or fat. Prepared vanilla extracts can be dispersed throughout a dish instantly, and are usually best added toward the end of cooking; any period of time spent at a high temperature causes aroma loss.

Tea and Coffee Tea and coffee are the most widely consumed drinks in the world, and their popularity stems from the same source as that of herbs and spices: the plant materials they're made from are crammed with chemical defenses that we have learned to dilute, modify, and love. Tea leaves and coffee beans have one defense in common, and that's caffeine, a bitter alkaloid that has significant effects on our bodies. And they both contain large doses of phenolic compounds. However, they're very different materials. Coffee begins as a seed, a storehouse of protein, carbohydrate, and oil, and is the creation of high heat, a robust epitome of roasted foods and flavors. Tea begins as a new, actively growing leaf, rich in enzymes, and is the delicate creation of those enzymes, carefully captured and preserved by minimal heat and drying. Coffee and tea thus offer two very different experiences of botanical inventiveness and human art.

Caffeine Caffeine is the most widely consumed behavior-modifying chemical in the world. It is an alkaloid (p. 238) that interferes with a particular signaling system used by many different cells, and therefore has several different effects on the human body. Above all, caffeine stimulates the central nervous system, relieves drowsiness and fatigue, and quickens reaction times. It also increases energy production in muscles and so their capacity for work. It's said to improve mood and mental performance, though recent studies suggest that these may be the result of relieving the initial symptoms of overnight caffeine withdrawal! Less desirably, in high doses it causes restlessness, nervousness, and insomnia. It has complex effects on the heart and arteries, and can produce an abnormally fast heartbeat. There is some evidence that caffeine speeds the loss of calcium from bone, so habitual consumption may contribute to osteoporosis.

Caffeine reaches its maximum levels in the blood between 15 minutes and two hours after consumption, and its levels are reduced by half within three to seven hours. Its effects are more noticeable in people who don't normally consume it. Withdrawal symptoms can be unpleasant, but usually disappear within three days of abstaining.

A chemical relative of caffeine called theophylline is found in tea and is in some respects more potent than caffeine, but tea contains only trace amounts. Though coffee beans are 12% caffeine and tea leaves 23%, brewed coffee contains more caffeine than brewed tea because a larger weight of coffee is extracted per cup (810 grams, vs. 25 grams for tea).

Tea, Coffee, and Health Not so many years ago, both coffee and tea were suspected of contributing to various diseases, including cancers, so they were among the many pleasures to feel guilty about. No longer! Coffee is now recognized as the major source of antioxidant compounds in the American diet (medium roasts have the highest antioxidant activity). Black and especially green teas are also rich in antioxidant and other protective phenolic compounds that appear to reduce damage to arteries and cancer risk.

Certain kinds of brewed coffee do turn out to have an undesirable effect on blood cholesterol levels. Two lipid (fat-like) substances, cafestol and kahweol, raise those levels, though they only get into the coffee when the brewing technique doesn't filter them out. Boiled, plunger-pot, and espresso coffees contain them. The significance of this effect isn't known and may well be small, since the cholesterol raisers are accompanied by a large dose of substances that protect the cholesterol from oxidation and causing damage (p. 255).

Water For Making Tea and Coffee Brewed tea and coffee are 9598% water, so their quality is strongly influenced by the quality of the water used to make them. The off-flavors and disinfectant chlorine compounds of most tap waters are largely driven off by boiling. Very hard water, high in calcium and magnesium carbonates, has several undesirable effects: in coffee, these minerals slow flavor extraction, cloud the brew, clog the pipes in espresso machines and reduce the fine espresso foam; in tea, they cause the formation of a surface sc.u.m made up of precipitated calcium carbonate and phenolic aggregates. Softened water overextracts both coffee and tea and gives a salty flavor. And very pure distilled water gives a brew best described as flat, with a missing dimension of flavor.

The ideal water has a moderate mineral content, and a pH that is close to neutral, so that the final brew will have a moderately acid pH of around 5, just right to support and balance the other flavors. Some bottled spring waters are suitable (Volvic is used in Hong Kong). Many munic.i.p.al tap waters are intentionally made alkaline to reduce pipe corrosion, and this can reduce the acidity and liveliness of both tea and dark-roasted coffee (light roasts contribute plenty of their own acid). Alkaline tap water can be corrected by adding tiny pinches of cream of tartar - tartaric acid - until it just begins to have a slightly tart taste.

Caffeine Numbers Daily caffeine consumption in milligrams per capita, 1990s

Norway, Netherlands, Denmark

400 400.

Germany, Austria

300 300.

France

240 240.

Britain

200 200.

United States

170 170.

Caffeine content, milligrams per serving