On military affairs in 1862, and especially on Lincoln's relationship with McClellan, the standard works are Kenneth P. Williams, Lincoln Finds a General: A Military Study of the Civil War (New York: Macmillan Co., 1949), vols. 12, and T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and His Generals (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952). I have learned much from both these historians, though I do not fully share their hostility toward McClellan. Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988), is the best biography. Stephen W. Sears, ed., The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan: Selected Correspondence, 18601865 (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989), and George B. McClellan, McClellan's Own Story (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1887), are invaluable.

T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and the Radicals (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1941), is the basic work on factionalism within the Republican party. I have questioned some of Williams's conclusions-especially those concerning the solidarity of the Radical faction and the hostility of Radicals toward Lincoln-in "The Radicals and Lincoln," in Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), and in "Devils Facing Zionwards," in Grady McWhiney, ed., Grant, Lee, Lincoln and the Radicals: Essays on Civil War Leadership (Evanston, III.: Northwestern University Press, 1964). Hans L. Trefousse, The Radical Republicans: Lincoln's Vanguard for Racial Justice (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), sees the Radicals as largely helping, rather than hindering, Lincoln. Allan G. Bogue, The Earnest Men: Republicans of the Civil War Senate (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981), is an important, objective study that uses roll-call a.n.a.lysis and other statistical techniques to define membership in the Republican factions.

The best account of Lincoln's plans for what he called "gradual, and not sudden emanc.i.p.ation" is in J. G. Randall, Lincoln the President: Springfield to Gettysburg (New York: Dodd, Mead, & Co., 1945), chap. 21.

328 "power to command": Bates, Diary, p. 220.

328 "of boyish cheerfulness": Ralph L. Rusk, The Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1949), p. 414.

328 "submit to it": P. P. Enos to Lyman Trumbull, Jan. 7, 1862, Trumbull MSS, LC.

328 "being two nations": Day by Day, 3:87.

329 "to General McClellan": George W. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840 to 1872 (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg & Co., 1884), p. 201.

329 "concert at once": CW, 5:87.

329 "in the South": CW, 5:91.

329 rather than orders: CW, 5:98.

329 "can be done": CW, 5:95.

330 "What shall I do?": "General M. C. Meigs on the Conduct of the Civil War," American Historical Review 26 (Jan. 1921): 292.

330 out his problems: The following paragraphs follow Irvin McDowell's diary account in William Swinton, Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac (New York: Charles B. Richardson, 1866), pp. 7982.

330 adjourned the meeting: "General M. C. Meigs on the Conduct of the Civil War," pp. 292293; Henry J. Raymond, The Life and Public Services of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Derby & Miller, 1865), pp. 776777.

331 "his own hands": Virginia Woodbury Fox, Diary, Jan. 26, 1862, Levi Woodbury MSS, LC.

331 his "political education": CW, 4:214.

331 to veto measures: Anna Prentner, "Application of Veto Power by Abraham Lincoln," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 6 (Jan. 1923): 5155. Lincoln vetoed or pocket-vetoed only seven bills during his presidency, mostly unimportant measures rejected for technical reasons. The Wade-Davis bill, discussed in a subsequent chapter, was highly exceptional. For a different view of Lincoln's use of the veto, see Allan G. Bogue, The Congressman's Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 5253.

331 "look much better": Francis Fessenden, Life and Public Services of William Pitt Fessenden (Boston: Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1907), 1:260.

332 "mildness towards... traitors": Hans L. Trefousse, Benjamin Franklin Wade: Radical Republican from Ohio (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1963), p. 186.

332 "regard to slavery": Trefousse, The Radical Republicans, p. 184.

332 "feasting and dancing": Allan Nevins, Fremont: Pathmarker of the West (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1955), p. 552.

332 Lincoln was President: William Jayne to William Butler, Mar. 21, 1861, Butler MSS, Chicago Historical Society. In time, Lincoln came to have "no doubt that Judge Trumbull is not his friend." David Davis to Leonard Swett, Nov. 26, 1861, Davis MSS, ISHL.

332 spread of liberty: David Herbert Donald, "Abraham Lincoln and the American Pragmatic Tradition," in Lincoln Reconsidered, pp. 128143.

333 "hostile to me": Hay, Diary, p. 235.

333 mortally offended them: John Hay to WHH, Sept. 5, 1866, HWC.