23 For the 6,488 Germans who died at the ambinowice camp, see Stankowski, For the 6,488 Germans who died at the ambinowice camp, see Stankowski, Obozy Obozy, 280. Urban (Verl.u.s.t, 129) estimates that, of the two hundred thousand Germans in Polish camps, sixty thousand died; the latter number seems high in light of the figures for individual camps. Stankowski gives a range of 27,847-60,000; see Obozy Obozy, 281. On Gborski and Cedrowski, see Stankowski, Obozy Obozy, 255-256. On the forty prisoners murdered on 4 October 1945, see Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 87.

24 On the freight trains, see Nitschke, On the freight trains, see Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 154.

25 On the robberies, see Urban, On the robberies, see Urban, Verl.u.s.t Verl.u.s.t, 123; and Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 109. Nitschke (Wysiedlenie, 161) estimates that 594,000 Germans crossed the border at this time; Ahonen (People, 93) gives the figure 600,000.

26 On the November plan, see Ahonen, On the November plan, see Ahonen, People People, 93. For the figures cited, see Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 182, 230. Compare Jankowiak, who gives 2,189,286 as a total for 1946 and 1947 (including only those in registered transports); see Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 501. Death tolls in transports to the British sector are given in Frank, Expelling Expelling, 258-259; and Ahonen, People People, 141.

27 Regarding the four hundred thousand Germans who died, see the original estimate in Regarding the four hundred thousand Germans who died, see the original estimate in Vertreibung Vertreibung, 40-41; the agreement in Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 231, and Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 11; the discussion and implicit endors.e.m.e.nt in Overmans, "Personelle Verl.u.s.te," 52, 59, 60; and the critique of exaggeration in Haar, "Entstehensgeschichte," 262-270. Ahonen estimates six hundred thousand deaths; see People People, 140.

28 See the discussion of the difference between policies of deliberate murder and other forms of mortality in the Introduction and the Conclusion. See the discussion of the difference between policies of deliberate murder and other forms of mortality in the Introduction and the Conclusion.

29 Simons in Simons in Eastern Europe Eastern Europe introduces the geoethnic issues well. introduces the geoethnic issues well.

30 On the relationship between the war and the communist takeovers generally, see Abrams, "Second World War"; Gross, "Social Consequences"; and Simons, On the relationship between the war and the communist takeovers generally, see Abrams, "Second World War"; Gross, "Social Consequences"; and Simons, Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe.

31 Secretary of State James Byrnes and the shifting US position are discussed in Ahonen, Secretary of State James Byrnes and the shifting US position are discussed in Ahonen, After the Expulsion After the Expulsion, 26-27. See also Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 70.

32 Quotation: Brandes, Quotation: Brandes, Weg Weg, 437. See also Kersten, "Forced," 81; Sobor-widerska, Berman Berman, 202; and Toraska, Oni Oni, 273.

33 See Snyder, See Snyder, Reconstruction. Reconstruction.

34 Doc.u.mentation of the UPA's plans for and actions toward Poles can be found in TsDAVO 3833/1/86/6a; 3833/1/131/13-14; 3833/1/86/19-20; and 3933/3/1/60. Of related interest are DAR 30/1/16=USHMM RG-31.017M-1; DAR 301/1/5=USHMM RG-31.017M-1; and DAR 30/1/4=USHMM RG-31.017M-1. These OUN-B and UPA wartime declarations coincide with postwar interrogations (see GARF, R-9478/1/398) and recollections of Polish survivors (on the ma.s.sacre of 12-13 July 1943, for example, see OKAW, II/737, II/1144, II/2099, II/2650, II/953, and II/775) and Jewish survivors (for example, IH 301/2519; and Adini, Doc.u.mentation of the UPA's plans for and actions toward Poles can be found in TsDAVO 3833/1/86/6a; 3833/1/131/13-14; 3833/1/86/19-20; and 3933/3/1/60. Of related interest are DAR 30/1/16=USHMM RG-31.017M-1; DAR 301/1/5=USHMM RG-31.017M-1; and DAR 30/1/4=USHMM RG-31.017M-1. These OUN-B and UPA wartime declarations coincide with postwar interrogations (see GARF, R-9478/1/398) and recollections of Polish survivors (on the ma.s.sacre of 12-13 July 1943, for example, see OKAW, II/737, II/1144, II/2099, II/2650, II/953, and II/775) and Jewish survivors (for example, IH 301/2519; and Adini, Dubno: sefer zikaron Dubno: sefer zikaron, 717-718). The fundamental study is now Motyka, Ukraiska partyzantka. Ukraiska partyzantka. See also Il'iushyn, See also Il'iushyn, OUN-UPA OUN-UPA, and Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism. Ukrainian Nationalism. I sought to explain this conflict in "Causes," I sought to explain this conflict in "Causes," Reconstruction Reconstruction, "Life and Death," and Sketches. Sketches.

35 On the 780,000 Poles shipped to communist Poland, see Slivka, On the 780,000 Poles shipped to communist Poland, see Slivka, Deportatsii Deportatsii, 25. On the 483,099 dispatched from communist Poland to Soviet Ukraine, see Cariewskaja, Teczka specjalna Teczka specjalna, 544. On the one hundred thousand Jews, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael Polska a Izrael, 40. For a discussion of Operation Vistula, see Snyder, Reconstruction; Reconstruction; and Snyder, "To Resolve." and Snyder, "To Resolve."

36 On the 182,543 Ukrainians deported from Soviet Ukraine to the Gulag, see Weiner, "Nature," 1137. On the 148,079 Red Army veterans, see Polian, "Violence," 129. See also, generally, Applebaum, On the 182,543 Ukrainians deported from Soviet Ukraine to the Gulag, see Weiner, "Nature," 1137. On the 148,079 Red Army veterans, see Polian, "Violence," 129. See also, generally, Applebaum, Gulag Gulag, 463.

37 For further details regarding the 140,660 people resettled by force, see Snyder, For further details regarding the 140,660 people resettled by force, see Snyder, Reconstruction Reconstruction; or Snyder, "To Resolve."

38 Snyder, Snyder, Reconstruction Reconstruction; and Snyder, "To Resolve"; Motyka, Ukraiska partyzantka Ukraiska partyzantka , 535. See also Burds, "Agentura." , 535. See also Burds, "Agentura."

39 Polian, Polian, Against Their Will Against Their Will, 166-168. In Operation South some 35,796 people were deported, on the night of 5 July 1949, from territories that the Soviets had annexed from Romania.

40 Polian, Polian, Against Their Will Against Their Will, 134.

41 See Polian, See Polian, Against Their Will Against Their Will, 134-155, for all of the cited figures. See also Naimark, Fires Fires, 96; Lieberman, Terrible Fate Terrible Fate, 206-207; and Burleigh, Third Reich Third Reich, 749.

42 On the eight million people returned to the Soviet Union, see Polian, "Violence," 127. On the twelve million Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Poles, see Gerlach ( On the eight million people returned to the Soviet Union, see Polian, "Violence," 127. On the twelve million Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Poles, see Gerlach (Kalkulierte Morde, 1160), who has examined these matters closely and estimates a minimum of three million displacements in Belarus alone.

43 Weiner ("Nature," 1137) notes that the Soviets reported killing 110,825 people as Ukrainian nationalists between February 1944 and May 1946. The NKVD estimated that 144,705 Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, and Karachai died as a result of deportation or shortly after resettlement (by 1948); see Lieberman, Weiner ("Nature," 1137) notes that the Soviets reported killing 110,825 people as Ukrainian nationalists between February 1944 and May 1946. The NKVD estimated that 144,705 Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, and Karachai died as a result of deportation or shortly after resettlement (by 1948); see Lieberman, Terrible Fate Terrible Fate, 207.

44 Survivors of the famine mention this in their memoirs. See Potichnij, "1946-1947 Famine," 185. Survivors of the famine mention this in their memoirs. See Potichnij, "1946-1947 Famine," 185.

45 See Mastny, See Mastny, Cold War Cold War, 30. On Zhdanov's heart attack, see Sebag Montefiore, Court Court, 506.

CHAPTER 11: STALINIST ANTI-SEMITISM.

1 On the murder, see Rubenstein, On the murder, see Rubenstein, Pogrom Pogrom, 1. On Tsanava, see Mavrogordato, "Lowlands," 527; and Smilovitsky, "Antisemitism," 207.

2 On the On the Black Book of Soviet Jewry Black Book of Soviet Jewry, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows Shadows, 68. On the stars, see Weiner, "Nature," 1150; and Weiner, Making Sense Making Sense, 382. On the synagogue used to store grain, see IH/1644. On the ashes from Babi Yar, see Rubenstein, Pogrom Pogrom, 38. See also, generally, Veidlinger, Yiddish Theater Yiddish Theater, 277.

3 Rubenstein, Rubenstein, Pogrom Pogrom, 35.

4 On Crimea, see Redlich, On Crimea, see Redlich, War War, 267; and Redlich, Propaganda Propaganda, 57. See also l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 155, 192; Luks, "Bruche," 28; and Veidlinger, "Soviet Jewry," 9-10.

5 On the state secret, see l.u.s.tiger, On the state secret, see l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 108. On the decorations for bravery, see Weiner, "Nature," 1151; and l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 138.

6 These figures were discussed in earlier chapters and will be again in the Conclusion. Regarding Jewish deaths in the USSR, see Arad, These figures were discussed in earlier chapters and will be again in the Conclusion. Regarding Jewish deaths in the USSR, see Arad, Soviet Union Soviet Union, 521 and 524. Filimoshin ("Ob itogakh," 124) gives an estimate of 1.8 million civilians deliberately killed under German occupation; to this I would add about a million starved prisoners of war and about four hundred thousand undercounted deaths from the siege of Leningrad. So, with both civilians and prisoners of war included, and very roughly, I would estimate 2.6 million Jews and 3.2 million inhabitants of Soviet Russia killed as civilians or prisoners of war. If prisoners of war are reckoned as military casualties, then the Jewish figure will exceed the Russian one.

7 Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Josif Stalin, "Declaration Concerning Atrocities Made at the Moscow Conference," 30 October 1943. This was part of the Moscow Declaration. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Josif Stalin, "Declaration Concerning Atrocities Made at the Moscow Conference," 30 October 1943. This was part of the Moscow Declaration.

8 On the "sons of the nation," see Arad, On the "sons of the nation," see Arad, Soviet Union Soviet Union, 539. On Khrushchev, see Salomini, L'Union L'Union, 242; and Weiner, Making Sense Making Sense, 351.

9 Thoughtful introductions to postwar Soviet culture are Kozlov, "Soviet Literary Audiences"; and Kozlov, "Historical Turn." Thoughtful introductions to postwar Soviet culture are Kozlov, "Soviet Literary Audiences"; and Kozlov, "Historical Turn."

10 On the seventy thousand Jews permitted to leave Poland for Israel, see Szajnok, On the seventy thousand Jews permitted to leave Poland for Israel, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael Polska a Izrael, 49. On Koestler, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows Shadows, 102.

11 On Rosh Hashanah and the synagogue, see Veidlinger, "Soviet Jewry," 13-16; and Szajnok, On Rosh Hashanah and the synagogue, see Veidlinger, "Soviet Jewry," 13-16; and Szajnok, Polska a Izrael Polska a Izrael, 159. On Zhemchuzhina, see Rubenstein, Pogrom Pogrom, 46. On Gorbman, see Luks, "Bruche," 34. On the policy turn generally, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael Polska a Izrael, 40, 82, 106, 111-116.

12 On the On the Pravda Pravda article, see Kostyrchenko, article, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows Shadows, 152. On the decreased number of Jews in high party positions (thirteen percent to four percent from 1945 to 1952), see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 352. The Grossman quotation is from Chandler's translation of Everything Flows. Everything Flows.

13 On the dissolution of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, see Kostyrchenko, On the dissolution of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, see Kostyrchenko, Shadows Shadows, 104. For the train quotation, see Der Nister, Family Mashber Family Mashber, 71. For the MGB report, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 327.

14 Molotov quotation: Gorlizki, Molotov quotation: Gorlizki, Cold Peace Cold Peace, 76. See also Redlich, War War, 149.

15 Redlich, Redlich, War War, 152; Rubenstein, Pogrom Pogrom, 55-60.

16 On the one hundred thousand Jews from the Soviet Union, see Szajnok, On the one hundred thousand Jews from the Soviet Union, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael Polska a Izrael, 40.

17 This was true of most of the postwar regimes, including the Czechoslovak, Romanian, and Hungarian. This was true of most of the postwar regimes, including the Czechoslovak, Romanian, and Hungarian.

18 Banac, Banac, With Stalin Against t.i.to With Stalin Against t.i.to, 117-142; Kramer, Konsolidierung Konsolidierung, 81-84. See also Gaddis, United States. United States.

19 On Gomuka and Berman, see Sobor-widerska, On Gomuka and Berman, see Sobor-widerska, Berman Berman, 219, 229, 240; Paczkowski, Trzy twarze Trzy twarze, 109; and Toraska, Oni Oni, 295-296.

20 On the exchange between Stalin and Gomuka, see Naimark, "Gomuka and Stalin," 244. Quotation: Sobor-widerska, On the exchange between Stalin and Gomuka, see Naimark, "Gomuka and Stalin," 244. Quotation: Sobor-widerska, Berman Berman, 258.

21 For the Smolar quotation and generally, see Sh.o.r.e, "Jzyk," 56. For the Smolar quotation and generally, see Sh.o.r.e, "Jzyk," 56.

22 Sh.o.r.e, "Jzyk," 60. All of that said, there were Polish-Jewish historians who did much valuable research on the Holocaust in the postwar years, some of it indispensable for the present study. Sh.o.r.e, "Jzyk," 60. All of that said, there were Polish-Jewish historians who did much valuable research on the Holocaust in the postwar years, some of it indispensable for the present study.

23 This was part of the slogan of one of the more striking propaganda posters, executed by Wodzimierz Zakrzewski. This was part of the slogan of one of the more striking propaganda posters, executed by Wodzimierz Zakrzewski.

24 Consulte Toraska, Consulte Toraska, Oni Oni, 241, 248 25 Gniazdowski, "Ustali liczb," 100-104 and pa.s.sim. Gniazdowski, "Ustali liczb," 100-104 and pa.s.sim.

26 On the Soviet amba.s.sador, see Sobor-widerska, On the Soviet amba.s.sador, see Sobor-widerska, Berman Berman, 202; and Paczkowski, Trzy twarze Trzy twarze, 114. For the percentage of high-ranking Ministry of Public Security officers who were Jewish by self-declaration or origin, see Eisler, "1968," 41.

27 Proces z vedenim Proces z vedenim, 9 and pa.s.sim; Lukes, "New Evidence," 171.

28 Toraska, Toraska, Oni Oni, 322-323.

29 See Sh.o.r.e, "Children." See Sh.o.r.e, "Children."

30 This explanation of the absence of a communist blood purge in Poland can be found inter alia in Luks, "Bruche," 47. One Polish communist leader apparently murdered another during the war; this too might have bred caution. This explanation of the absence of a communist blood purge in Poland can be found inter alia in Luks, "Bruche," 47. One Polish communist leader apparently murdered another during the war; this too might have bred caution.

31 Paczkowski, Paczkowski, Trzy twarze Trzy twarze, 103.

32 The Soviet Union did annex the Kuril Islands. The Soviet Union did annex the Kuril Islands.

33 Weinberg, Weinberg, World at Arms World at Arms, 81.

34 Quotation: Sebag Montefiore, Quotation: Sebag Montefiore, Court Court, 536.

35 Service, Service, Stalin Stalin, 554. On central Asia, see Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 324.

36 Kramer, "Konsolidierung," 86-90. Kramer, "Konsolidierung," 86-90.

37 The argument about the difference between the 1950s and the 1930s is developed in Zubok, The argument about the difference between the 1950s and the 1930s is developed in Zubok, Empire Empire, 77. See also Gorlizki, Cold Peace Cold Peace, 97.

38 On Shcherbakov, see Brandenberger, On Shcherbakov, see Brandenberger, National Bolshevism National Bolshevism, 119 and pa.s.sim; Kuromiya, "Jews," 523, 525; and Zubok, Empire Empire, 7.

39 On the Victory Day parade, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 193. On Etinger, see Brent, On the Victory Day parade, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 193. On Etinger, see Brent, Plot Plot, 11. See also l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 213. Stalin's concern with medical terrorism dated back to at least 1930; see Prystaiko, Sprava Sprava, 49.

40 On Karpai, see Brent, On Karpai, see Brent, Plot Plot, 296.

41 Lukes, "New Evidence," 165. Lukes, "New Evidence," 165.

42 Ibid., 178-180; l.u.s.tiger, Ibid., 178-180; l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 264.

43 For the quotation and the proportion (eleven out of fourteen defendants of Jewish origin), see For the quotation and the proportion (eleven out of fourteen defendants of Jewish origin), see Proces z vedenim Proces z vedenim, 44-47, at 47. On the denunciations, see Margolius Kovaly, Cruel Star Cruel Star, 139.

44 For Slansk's confession, see For Slansk's confession, see Proces z vedenim Proces z vedenim, 66, 70, 72. For the death penalty and the hangman, see Lukes, "New Evidence," 160, 185. On Margolius, see Margolius Kovaly, Cruel Star Cruel Star, 141.

45 On Poland, see Paczkowski, On Poland, see Paczkowski, Trzy twarze Trzy twarze, 162.

46 Quotation: Brent, Quotation: Brent, Plot Plot, 250.

47 Kostyrchenko, Kostyrchenko, Shadows Shadows, 264; Brent, Plot Plot, 267. On the dance, see Service, Stalin Stalin, 580.

48 On Mikhoels as Lear, see Veidlinger, On Mikhoels as Lear, see Veidlinger, Yiddish Theater. Yiddish Theater.

49 For "every Jew . . . ," see Rubenstein, For "every Jew . . . ," see Rubenstein, Pogrom Pogrom, 62. For "their nation had been saved . . . ," see Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 220.

50 Quotations: Kostyrchenko, Quotations: Kostyrchenko, Shadows Shadows, 290. See also l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 250.

51 On Karpai, see Kostyrchenko, On Karpai, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm, 466; and Brent, Plot Plot, 296.

52 On the drafting and redrafting, see Kostyrchenko, On the drafting and redrafting, see Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm , 470-478. On Grossman, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 196. See also Luks, "Bruche," 47, The Grossman quotation is from , 470-478. On Grossman, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 196. See also Luks, "Bruche," 47, The Grossman quotation is from Life and Fate Life and Fate at 398. at 398.

53 On Ehrenburg, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 197. On Ehrenburg, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 197.

54 For the rumors, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 202. For the number of doctors, see Luks, "Bruche," 42. For the rumors, see Brandenberger, "Last Crime," 202. For the number of doctors, see Luks, "Bruche," 42.

55 Khlevniuk, "Stalin as dictator," 110, 118. On Stalin's nonappearance at factories, farms, and government offices after the Second World War, see Service, Khlevniuk, "Stalin as dictator," 110, 118. On Stalin's nonappearance at factories, farms, and government offices after the Second World War, see Service, Stalin Stalin, 539.

56 On Stalin's security chiefs, see Brent, On Stalin's security chiefs, see Brent, Plot Plot, 258.

57 Stalin ordered beatings on 13 November; see Brent, Stalin ordered beatings on 13 November; see Brent, Plot, Plot, 224. On the trial, see l.u.s.tiger, 224. On the trial, see l.u.s.tiger, Stalin Stalin, 250.

58 For details on the "anti-Zionist campaign" of 1968, see Stola, For details on the "anti-Zionist campaign" of 1968, see Stola, Kampania antysyjonistyczna Kampania antysyjonistyczna ; and Paczkowski, ; and Paczkowski, Po wieku. Po wieku.

59 Rozenbaum, "March Events," 68. Rozenbaum, "March Events," 68.

60 On the earlier Soviet practice, see Szajnok, On the earlier Soviet practice, see Szajnok, Polska a Izrael Polska a Izrael, 160.

61 Stola, "Hate Campaign," 19, 31. On the "fifth column, " see Rozenbaum, "1968," 70. Stola, "Hate Campaign," 19, 31. On the "fifth column, " see Rozenbaum, "1968," 70.

62 Stola, "Hate Campaign," 20. Stola, "Hate Campaign," 20.

63 For the figure of 2,591 people arrested, see Stola, "Hate Campaign," 17. For the Gdask railway station, see Eisler, "1968," 60. For the figure of 2,591 people arrested, see Stola, "Hate Campaign," 17. For the Gdask railway station, see Eisler, "1968," 60.

64 See Judt, See Judt, Postwar Postwar, 422-483; and Simons, Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe.

65 Brown, Brown, Rise and Fall Rise and Fall, 396.

CONCLUSION: HUMANITY.

1 Compare Moyn, "In the Aftermath." The interpretations here arise from arguments that are doc.u.mented in the chapters; the annotation is therefore limited. Compare Moyn, "In the Aftermath." The interpretations here arise from arguments that are doc.u.mented in the chapters; the annotation is therefore limited.

2 Perhaps a million people died in the German camps (as opposed to the death facilities and shooting and starvation sites). See Orth, Perhaps a million people died in the German camps (as opposed to the death facilities and shooting and starvation sites). See Orth, System. System.

3 Compare Keegan, Compare Keegan, Face of Battle Face of Battle, 55; and Gerlach and Werth, "State Violence," 133.

4 Most of the remainder of those who starved were in Kazakhstan. I am counting the deaths in Ukraine as intended, and those in Kazakhstan as foreseeable. Future research might change the estimation of intentionality. Most of the remainder of those who starved were in Kazakhstan. I am counting the deaths in Ukraine as intended, and those in Kazakhstan as foreseeable. Future research might change the estimation of intentionality.

5 This and the below quotation follow Robert Chandler's 2010 translation of This and the below quotation follow Robert Chandler's 2010 translation of Everything Flows Everything Flows, unpublished as I write. See also Life and Fate Life and Fate at 29. at 29.

6 A sustained discussion of the moral economy of land and murder is Kiernan, A sustained discussion of the moral economy of land and murder is Kiernan, Blood and Soil. Blood and Soil.

7 Mao's China exceeded Hitler's Germany in the famine of 1958-1960, which killed some thirty million people. Mao's China exceeded Hitler's Germany in the famine of 1958-1960, which killed some thirty million people.