8 For "belligerent complicity," see Furet, For "belligerent complicity," see Furet, Fascism and Communism Fascism and Communism, 2. Compare Edele, "States," 348. Hitler quotation: Luck, "Partisanbekampfung," 228.

9 Todorov, Todorov, Memoire du mal Memoire du mal, 90.

10 Milgram, "Behavior Study," still repays reading. Milgram, "Behavior Study," still repays reading.

11 Koakowski, Koakowski, Main Currents Main Currents, 43.

12 On international bystanding, see Power, On international bystanding, see Power, Problem. Problem.

13 Fest, Fest, Das Gesicht Das Gesicht, 108, 162.

14 As Harold James notes, theories of violent modernization actually fare badly in purely economic terms; see As Harold James notes, theories of violent modernization actually fare badly in purely economic terms; see Europe Reborn Europe Reborn, 26. Buber-Neumann quotation: Under Two Dictators Under Two Dictators, 35.

15 The most significant German crime in Soviet Russia was the deliberate starvation of Leningrad, in which about a million people died. The Germans killed a relatively small number of Jews in Soviet Russia, perhaps sixty thousand. They also killed at least a million prisoners of war from Soviet Russia in the Dulags and the Stalags. These people are usually reckoned as military losses in Soviet and Russian estimates; since I am counting them as victims of a deliberate killing policy, I am The most significant German crime in Soviet Russia was the deliberate starvation of Leningrad, in which about a million people died. The Germans killed a relatively small number of Jews in Soviet Russia, perhaps sixty thousand. They also killed at least a million prisoners of war from Soviet Russia in the Dulags and the Stalags. These people are usually reckoned as military losses in Soviet and Russian estimates; since I am counting them as victims of a deliberate killing policy, I am increasing increasing the estimate of 1.8 million in Filimoshin, "Ob itogakh," 124. I believe that the Russian estimate for deaths at Leningrad is too low by about four hundred thousand people, so I add that as well. If Boris Sokolov is right, and Soviet military losses were far higher than the conventional estimates, then most of the people in the higher estimates were soldiers. If Ellman and Maksudov are right, and Soviet military losses were in fact lower, then most of these people were civilians: often civilians not under German occupation. See Sokolov, "How to Count," 451-457; and Ellman, "Soviet Deaths," 674-680. the estimate of 1.8 million in Filimoshin, "Ob itogakh," 124. I believe that the Russian estimate for deaths at Leningrad is too low by about four hundred thousand people, so I add that as well. If Boris Sokolov is right, and Soviet military losses were far higher than the conventional estimates, then most of the people in the higher estimates were soldiers. If Ellman and Maksudov are right, and Soviet military losses were in fact lower, then most of these people were civilians: often civilians not under German occupation. See Sokolov, "How to Count," 451-457; and Ellman, "Soviet Deaths," 674-680.

16 On the deaths of 516,841 Gulag inmates, see Zemskov, "Smertnost'," 176. On the four million Soviet citizens in the Gulag (including the special settlements), see Khlevniuk, On the deaths of 516,841 Gulag inmates, see Zemskov, "Smertnost'," 176. On the four million Soviet citizens in the Gulag (including the special settlements), see Khlevniuk, Gulag Gulag, 307.

17 Brandon and Lower estimate 5.5-7 million total losses in Soviet Ukraine during the war; see "Introduction," 11. Brandon and Lower estimate 5.5-7 million total losses in Soviet Ukraine during the war; see "Introduction," 11.

18 For an introduction to the memory culture, see Goujon, "Memorial." For an introduction to the memory culture, see Goujon, "Memorial."

19 Here as elsewhere in the Conclusion, discussions of numbers are doc.u.mented in the chapters. Here as elsewhere in the Conclusion, discussions of numbers are doc.u.mented in the chapters.

20 Janion, Janion, Do Europy. Do Europy. On Berman, see Gniazdowski, "'Ustali liczb." On Berman, see Gniazdowski, "'Ustali liczb."