CHAPTER 9: RESISTANCE AND INCINERATION.

1 Luck, "Partisanbekampfung," 246; Zaloga, Luck, "Partisanbekampfung," 246; Zaloga, Bagration Bagration, 27, 28, 43, 56.

2 Zaloga, Zaloga, Bagration Bagration, 7, 69, 71. The Americans had been in Italy since 1943.

3 Grossman, Grossman, Road Road, 27. See also Furet, Pa.s.se Pa.s.se, 536; and Gerard, Bones Bones, 187-189. Grossman may not have understood that the signs of the ma.s.s murder were visible because the local Polish population had been looking for valuables. It would have been impossible for him to write that the guards at Treblinka were Soviet citizens.

4 Engelking, Engelking, ydzi ydzi, 260. See also Miosz, Legends Legends; and Snyder, "Wartime Lies."

5 Tokarzewski-Karaszewicz, "U podstaw tworzenia Armii Krajowej," 124-157. Tokarzewski-Karaszewicz, "U podstaw tworzenia Armii Krajowej," 124-157.

6 On fighting for the restoration of Poland as a democratic republic, see Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 19, 23, 34. On the NKVD, see Engelking, On fighting for the restoration of Poland as a democratic republic, see Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 19, 23, 34. On the NKVD, see Engelking, ydzi ydzi, 147.

7 Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 24. Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 24.

8 Wdowinski, Wdowinski, Saved Saved, 78; Arens, "Jewish Military," 205.

9 Wdowinski, Wdowinski, Saved Saved, 79, 82; Libionka, "Pomnik," 110; Libionka, "Deconstructing," 4; Libionka, "Apokryfy," 166.

10 On Agudas Israel, see Bacon, On Agudas Israel, see Bacon, Politics of Tradition. Politics of Tradition.

11 The story of the formation of the Jewish Combat Organization is complex. See Sakowska, The story of the formation of the Jewish Combat Organization is complex. See Sakowska, Ludzie Ludzie, 322-325; and Zuckerman, Surplus. Surplus.

12 On the rescue organization, see Bartoszewski, On the rescue organization, see Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 16; and Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 27, 33, 36, 39, 56.

13 Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 60, 71. Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 60, 71.

14 Bartoszewski, Bartoszewski, Ten jest Ten jest, 32; Sakowska, Ludzie Ludzie, 321, quotation (Marek Lichtenbaum) at 326.

15 Gutman, Gutman, Resistance Resistance, 198.

16 Engelking, Engelking, Warsaw Ghetto Warsaw Ghetto, 763; Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 33-34.

17 On the arms cache, see Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 69; and Moczarski, On the arms cache, see Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 69; and Moczarski, Rozmowy Rozmowy, 232. On the anti-Semitic minority, see Engelking, ydzi ydzi, 193, and pa.s.sim.

18 Quotation (Himmler): Kopka, Quotation (Himmler): Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 36.

19 Szapiro, Szapiro, Wojna Wojna, 9; Milton, Stroop Stroop, pa.s.sim; Libionka, "Polska konspiracja," 472.

20 Quotation (Gustawa Jarecka): Ka.s.sow, Quotation (Gustawa Jarecka): Ka.s.sow, History History, 183.

21 Engelking, Engelking, Warsaw Ghetto Warsaw Ghetto, 774; Engelking, Getto warszawskie Getto warszawskie, 733; Gutman, Resistance Resistance, 201.

22 Szapiro, Szapiro, Wojna Wojna, pa.s.sim; also Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 82.

23 Quotations: Zuckerman, Quotations: Zuckerman, Surplus Surplus, 357; Szapiro, Wojna Wojna, 35.

24 On the flags, see Milton, On the flags, see Milton, Stroop. Stroop. Quotation: Moczarski, Quotation: Moczarski, Rozmowy Rozmowy, 200.

25 The Edelman testimony is in "Proces Stroopa Tom 1," SWMW-874, IVk 222/51, now at IPN. The Edelman testimony is in "Proces Stroopa Tom 1," SWMW-874, IVk 222/51, now at IPN.

26 Moczarski, Moczarski, Rozmowy Rozmowy, 252, quotation at 253.

27 Engelking, Engelking, Warsaw Ghetto Warsaw Ghetto, 794.

28 Puawski, Puawski, W obliczu W obliczu, 412, 420-421, 446. On the pope, see Libionka, "Gow w mur."

29 Quotation: Engelking, Quotation: Engelking, Warsaw Ghetto Warsaw Ghetto, 795. On the eleven attempts to help Jews, see Engelking, Getto warszawskie Getto warszawskie, 745; and Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 79. On the Soviet propaganda, see Redlich, Propaganda Propaganda, 49.

30 On Wilner, see Sakowska, Ludzie, 326. On Wilner, see Sakowska, Ludzie, 326.

31 Quotation: Engelking, Quotation: Engelking, Getto warszawskie Getto warszawskie, 750; Gutman, Resistance Resistance, 247; Marrus, "Jewish Resistance," 98; Friedlander, Extermination Extermination, 598.

32 For the numbers cited, see Bartoszewski, For the numbers cited, see Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 256. On 1 June 1943, see Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 39.

33 See Zimmerman, "Att.i.tude," 120; and Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 119-123. See Zimmerman, "Att.i.tude," 120; and Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 119-123.

34 Bartoszewski, Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 242.

35 Madajczyk, "Generalplan," 15; Rutherford, Madajczyk, "Generalplan," 15; Rutherford, Prelude Prelude, 218; Aly, Architects Architects, 275; Ahonen, People People, 39.

36 On March 1943, see Borodziej, On March 1943, see Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 41. On the extermination of Jews as a motive, see Puawski, W obliczu W obliczu, 442. For the 6,214 instances of partisan resistance, see BA-MA, RH 53-23 (WiG), 66.

37 On 13 October 1943, see Bartoszewski, On 13 October 1943, see Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 286. On the plaster and earth, see Kopka, Warschau, Warschau, 58-59. 58-59.

38 Bartoszewski, Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 331, 348, 376, 378, 385, figure at 427.

39 Kopka, Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 40.

40 Ibid., 46, 53, 75. Ibid., 46, 53, 75.

41 Quotation: Kopka, Quotation: Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 69.

42 Kopka, Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 60.

43 On the Bagration connection, see Zaloga, On the Bagration connection, see Zaloga, Bagration Bagration, 82.

44 The Allies discussed the future Polish border at the Tehran summit of 28 November-1 December 1943; see Ciechanowski, The Allies discussed the future Polish border at the Tehran summit of 28 November-1 December 1943; see Ciechanowski, Powstanie Powstanie, 121.

45 Operatsia "Seim Operatsia "Seim," 5 and pa.s.sim. 5 and pa.s.sim.

46 On Bielski's partisan unit, see Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 112. For multiple perspectives on Bielski, see Snyder, "Caught Between." On Bielski's partisan unit, see Libionka, "ZWZ-AK," 112. For multiple perspectives on Bielski, see Snyder, "Caught Between."

47 On 22 July 1944, see Borodziej, On 22 July 1944, see Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 64.

48 On the exclusion and the arms, see Borodziej, On the exclusion and the arms, see Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 61.

49 The atmosphere is conveyed and the battles described in Davies, The atmosphere is conveyed and the battles described in Davies, Rising '44. Rising '44. On the fact that no major targets were captured, see Borodziej, On the fact that no major targets were captured, see Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 75.

50 Engelking, Engelking, ydzi ydzi, 91 for Zylberberg, and pa.s.sim; National Armed Forces at 62, 86, 143.

51 On Aronson, see Engelking, On Aronson, see Engelking, ydzi ydzi, 61, National Armed Forces at 62, 86, 143; and Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 42, 106, 110, "indifference" quotation at 101.

52 Krannhals, Krannhals, Warschauer Aufstand Warschauer Aufstand, 124.

53 Ibid., 124-127. Ibid., 124-127.

54 Wroniszewski, Wroniszewski, Ochota Ochota, 567, 568, 627, 628, 632, 654, 694; Dallin, Kaminsky Kaminsky, 79-82. On the Marie Curie Inst.i.tute, see Hanson, Civilian Population Civilian Population, 90. Quotations: Mierecki, Varshavskoe Varshavskoe, 642 ("Ma.s.s executions"); Dallin, Kaminsky Kaminsky, 81 ("they raped . . . "); Mierecki, Varshavskoe Varshavskoe, 803 ("robbing . . . ").

55 Madaczyk, Madaczyk, Ludno Ludno, 61.

56 On Himmler's orders, see Sawicki, On Himmler's orders, see Sawicki, Zburzenie Zburzenie, 32, 35; and Krannhals, Warschauer Aufstand Warschauer Aufstand, 420. On the human shields (and other atrocities), see Stang, "Dirlew.a.n.ger," 71; Serwaski, ycie ycie, 64; Mierecki, Varshavskoe Varshavskoe, 547, 751; and MacLean, Hunters Hunters, 182. See also Ingrao, Cha.s.seurs Cha.s.seurs, 180. For estimates of forty thousand civilians murdered, see Hanson, Civilian Population Civilian Population, 90; and Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 81. Ingrao gives the figure of 12,500 shot in one day by the Dirlew.a.n.ger unit alone; see Cha.s.seurs Cha.s.seurs, 53.

57 On the three hospitals, see Hanson, On the three hospitals, see Hanson, Civilian Population Civilian Population, 88; and MacLean, Hunters Hunters, 182. On the gang rapes and murder, see Ingrao, Cha.s.seurs Cha.s.seurs, 134, 150.

58 On the factory where two thousand people were shot, see Mierecki, On the factory where two thousand people were shot, see Mierecki, Varshavskoe Varshavskoe , 547. Quotation: Hanson, , 547. Quotation: Hanson, Civilian Population Civilian Population, 88.

59 Borodziej, Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 81.

60 Klimaszewski, Klimaszewski, Verbrennungskommando Verbrennungskommando, 25-26, 53, 69, 70. On the Jewish laborer, see Engelking, ydzi ydzi, 210. See also Biaoszewski, Pamitnik Pamitnik, 28.

61 Quotation: Borodziej, Quotation: Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 91. See also Ciechanowski, Powstanie Powstanie, 138, 145, 175, 196, 205.

62 Quotations: Borodziej, Quotations: Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 94.

63 Quotation: Borodziej, Quotation: Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 94. See also Davies, Rising '44. Rising '44.

64 On Himmler, see Borodziej, On Himmler, see Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 79, 141; Mierecki, Varshavskoe Varshavskoe, 807; Krannhals, Warschauer Aufstand Warschauer Aufstand, 329 (and ghetto experience); and Ingrao, Cha.s.seurs Cha.s.seurs, 182.

65 On Bach and the Wehrmacht, see Sawicki, On Bach and the Wehrmacht, see Sawicki, Zburzenie Zburzenie, 284; and Krannhals, Warschauer Aufstand Warschauer Aufstand, 330-331. On the last library, see Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 141.

66 Estimates: Ingrao, Estimates: Ingrao, Les cha.s.seurs Les cha.s.seurs (200,000); Borodziej, (200,000); Borodziej, Uprising Uprising, 130 (185,000); Pohl, Verfolgung Verfolgung, 121 (170,000); Krannhals, Warschauer Aufstand Warschauer Aufstand, 124 (166,000).

67 On Landau and Ringelblum, see Bartoszewski, On Landau and Ringelblum, see Bartoszewski, Warszawski piercie Warszawski piercie, 385. On Ringelblum specifically, see Engelking, Warsaw Ghetto Warsaw Ghetto, 671; see also, generally, Ka.s.sow, History. History.

68 Estimates of the numbers of people in hiding are in Paulson, Estimates of the numbers of people in hiding are in Paulson, Secret City Secret City, 198.

69 Strzelecki, Strzelecki, Deportacja Deportacja, 25, 35-37; Dugoborski, "ydzi," 147; Low, Juden Juden, 455, 466, 471, Bradfisch and trains at 472, 476.

70 Kopka, Kopka, Warschau Warschau, 51, 116.

71 Strzelecki, Strzelecki, Deportacja Deportacja, 111.

CHAPTER 10: ETHNIC CLEANSINGS.

1 On the importance of German precedents, see Brandes, On the importance of German precedents, see Brandes, Weg Weg, 58, 105, 199, and pa.s.sim; also Ahonen, After the Expulsion After the Expulsion, 15-25.

2 On Polish and Czech wartime planning for deportations, generally less radical than what would actually be achieved, see Brandes, On Polish and Czech wartime planning for deportations, generally less radical than what would actually be achieved, see Brandes, Weg Weg, 57, 61, 117, 134, 141, 160, 222, 376, and pa.s.sim.

3 Quotation: Borodziej, Quotation: Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 61. In Polish the distinction is between narodowy narodowy and and narodowociowy narodowociowy.

4 Mikoajczyk quotation: Nitschke, Mikoajczyk quotation: Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 41; see Naimark, Fires Fires, 124. On Roosevelt, see Brandes, Weg Weg, 258. On Hoover, see Kersten, "Forced," 78. On Churchill, see Frank, Expelling Expelling, 74. On the uprising, see Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 109.

5 See Brandes, See Brandes, Weg Weg, 267-272.

6 Frank, Frank, Expelling Expelling, 89.

7 On Hungary, see Ungvary, On Hungary, see Ungvary, Schlacht Schlacht, 411-432; and Naimark, Russians Russians, 70. On Poland, see Curp, Clean Sweep Clean Sweep, 51. Yugoslav quotation: Naimark, Russians Russians, 71.

8 On the incidence of rape in the earlier occupation, see Gross, On the incidence of rape in the earlier occupation, see Gross, Revolution Revolution, 40; and Shumuk, Perezhyte Perezhyte, 17. Worth considering are the reflections of a victim: Anonyma, Eine Frau Eine Frau, 61.

9 Quotation: Salomini, Quotation: Salomini, L'Union L'Union, 123; also 62, 115-116, 120, 177. The point about conscripts is made inter alia in Vertreibung Vertreibung, 26.

10 Vertreibung Vertreibung, 33. An admirable discussion is Naimark, Russians Russians, 70-74. On Gra.s.s, see Beim Hauten Beim Hauten, 321.

11 On the burial of the mother, see On the burial of the mother, see Vertreibung Vertreibung, 197.

12 On the 520,000 Germans, see Urban, On the 520,000 Germans, see Urban, Verl.u.s.t Verl.u.s.t, 517. On the 40,000 Poles, see Zwolski, "Deportacje," 49. Gurianov estimates 39,000-48,000; see "Obzor," 205. Still more Poles seem to have been deported from Soviet Belarus; see Szybieka, Historia Historia, 362. On the Hungarian civilians, see Ungvary, Schlacht Schlacht, 411-432. On the mines, see Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 71. For the 287,000 people taken as laborers and Camp 517, see Wheatcroft, "Scale," 1345.

13 For the 185,000 German civilians, see Urban, For the 185,000 German civilians, see Urban, Verl.u.s.t Verl.u.s.t, 117. For the 363,000 German prisoners of war, see Overmans, Verl.u.s.te Verl.u.s.te, 286; Wheatcroft counts 356,687; see "Scale," 1353. Tens of thousands of Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian soldiers also perished after having surrendered to the Red Army. Regarding the Italians, Schlemmer estimates 60,000 deaths; see Italianer Italianer, 74. Regarding the Hungarians, Stark estimates 200,000 (which seems improbably high); see Human Losses Human Losses, 33. See also Biess, "Vom Opfer," 365.

14 On the psychological sources of the evacuation problem, see Nitschke, On the psychological sources of the evacuation problem, see Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 48. Quotation: Hillgruber, Germany Germany, 96. See also Steinberg, "Third Reich," 648; and Arendt, In der Gegenwart In der Gegenwart, 26-29.

15 On the Gauleiters and the ships, see Nitschke, On the Gauleiters and the ships, see Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 52-60.

16 On Jahntz, see On Jahntz, see Vertreibung Vertreibung, 227. Quotation: Gra.s.s, Beim Hauten Beim Hauten, 170.

17 Nitschke, Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 135; Jankowiak, "Cleansing," 88-92. Ahonen estimates 1.25 million returns; see People People, 87.

18 Stank, Stank, Odsun Odsun, 55-58. See also Naimark, Fires Fires, 115-117; Gla.s.sheim, "Mechanics," 206-207; and Ahonen, People People, 81. The Czech-German Joint Commission gives a range of 19,000 to 30,000 fatalities; see Community Community, 33. Some 160,000 Germans from Czechoslovakia lost their lives fighting in the Wehrmacht. For Gra.s.s, see his Beim Hauten Beim Hauten, 186.

19 Quotation: Nitschke, Quotation: Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 136; also Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 144. On the movement of 1.2 million people, see Jankowiak, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 93, also 100. Borodziej estimates 300,000-400,000 (Niemcy, 67); Curp gives the figure 350,000 (Clean Sweep, 53). See also Jankowiak, "Cleansing," 89-92.

20 On Potsdam, see Brandes, On Potsdam, see Brandes, Weg Weg, 404, 458, 470; and Naimark, Fires Fires, 111.

21 Quotation: Naimark, Quotation: Naimark, Fires Fires, 109. On Aleksander Zawadzki, the Silesian governor, see Urban, Verl.u.s.t Verl.u.s.t, 115; and Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 144. On Olsztyn, see Nitschke, Wysiedlenie Wysiedlenie, 158.

22 On Public Security, see Borodziej, On Public Security, see Borodziej, Niemcy Niemcy, 80. Quotation: Stankowski, Obozy Obozy, 261.