Note that the proportion of O by weight is in each case a multiple of the first, 16. Also that the proportion by volume of O is a multiple of that in the first compound. In this example the N remains the same. If that had varied in the different compounds, it would also havevaried by a multiple of the smallest proportion. This is true in all compounds.

115. Law of Multiple Proportion.--Whenever one element combines with another in more than one proportion, it always combines in some multiple, one or more, of its least combining weight, or, if a gas, of its least combining volume.

The least combining weight of an element is its atomic weight; and it is this fact of a least combining weight that leads us to believe the atom to be indivisible.

Apply the law in the case of P2O, P2O3, P2O5; in HClO, HClO2, HClO3, HClO4, arranging the symbols, weights, and volumes in a table, as above.

The volumetric proportions of each element in the oxides of nitrogen are exhibited below.

_ + _ + _ = __ N + N + O = N2O

_ + _ + _ + _ = __ N + N + O + O = N2O2

_ + _ + _ + _ + _ = __ N + N + O + O + O = N2O3

_ + _ + _ + _ + _ + _ = __ N + N + O + O + O + O = N2O4

_ + _ + _ + _ + _ + _ + _ = __ N + N + O + O + O + O + O = N2O5

CHAPTER XXIV.

CARBON PROTOXIDE.

116. Preparation.

Experiment 72.--Put into a flask, of 200 cc., 5 g. of oxalic acid crystals, H2C2O4, and 25 cc. H2SO4. Have the d.t. pa.s.s into a solution of NaOH in a Woulff bottle (Fig. 31), and collect the gas over water. Heat the flask slowly, and avoid inhaling the gas.

117. Tests.

Experiment 73.--Remove a receiver of the gas, and try to light the latter with a splinter. Is it combustible, or a supporter of (C) combustion? What is the color of the flame? When the combustion ceases, shake up a little lime water with the gas left in the receiver. What gas has been formed by the combustion, as shown by the test? See page 80. Give the reaction for the combustion.

We have seen that H2SO4 has great affinity for H2O. Oxalic acid consists of H, C, O in the right proportion to form H2O, CO2, and CO. H2SO4 withdraws H and O in the right proportion to form water, unites them, and then absorbs the water, leaving the C and O to combine and form CO2 and CO. NaOH solution removes CO2 from the mixture, forming Na2CO3, and leaves CO. Write both reactions.

118. Carbon Protoxide, called also carbon monoxide, carbonic oxide, etc., is a gas, having no color or taste, butpossessing a faint odor. It is very poisonous. Being the lesser oxide of C, it is formed when C is burned in a limited supply of O, whereas CO2 is always produced when O is abundant. The formation of each is well shown by tracing the combustion in a coal fire. Air enters at the bottom, and CO2 is first formed. C + 2O = CO2. As this gas pa.s.ses up, the white-hot coal removes one atom of O, leaving CO.

CO2 + C - 2CO. At the top, if the draft be open, a blue flame shows the combustion of CO. CO + O = CO2. The same reduction of CO2 takes place in the iron furnace, and whenever there is not enough oxygen to form CO2, the product is CO.

Great care should be taken that this gas does not escape into the room, as one per cent has proved fatal. Not all of it is burned at the top of the coal; and when the stove door is open, the upper drafts should be open also. It is the most poisonous of the gases from coal; hence the danger from sleeping in a room having a coal fire.

119. Water Gas.--CO is one of the const.i.tuents of "water gas,"

which, by reason of its cheapness, is supplanting gas made from coal, as an illuminator, in some cities. It is made by pa.s.sing superheated steam over red-hot charcoal or c.o.ke. C unites with the O of H2O, forming CO, and sets H free, thus producing two inflammable gases. C + H2O --? As neither of these gives much light, naphtha is distilled and mixed with them in small quant.i.ties to furnish illuminating power See page 183.

CHAPTER XXV.

CARBON DIOXIDE.

120. Preparation.

Experiment 74.--Put into a t.t., or a bottle with a d.t. and a thistle-tube, 10 or 20 g. CaCO3, marble in lumps; add as many cubic centimeters of H2O, and half as much HCl, and collect the gas by downward displacement (Fig. 39). Add more acid as needed.

CaCO3 + 2 HCl = CaCl2 + H2CO3. H2CO3 = H2O + CO2. H2CO3 is a very weak compound, and at once breaks up. By some, its existence as a compound is doubted.

121. Tests.

Experiment 75.--(1) Put a burning and a glowing stick into the t.t. or bottle. (2) Hold the end of the d.t. directly against the flame of a small burning stick. Does the gas support combustion?

(3) Pour a receiver of the gas over a candle flame. What does this show of the weight of the gas? (4) Pa.s.s a little CO2 into some H2O (Fig. 32), and test it with litmus. Give the reaction for the solution of CO2 in H2O.

Experiment 76.--Put into a t.t. 51 cc. of clear Ca(OH)2 solution, i.e. lime water; insert in this the end of a d.t. from a CO2 generator (Fig. 32). Notice any ppt. formed. It is CaCO3. Let the action continue until the ppt. disappears and the liquid is clear. Then remove the d.t., boil the clear liquid for a minute, and notice whether the ppt. reappears.

122. Explanation.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O. The curious phenomena of this experiment are explained by the solubility of CaCO3 in water containing CO2, and its insolu-bility in water, having no CO2.

When all the Ca(OH)3 is combined, or changed to CaCO3, the excess of CO2 unites with H2O, forming the weak acid H2CO3, which dissolves the precipitate, CaCO3, and gives a clear liquid. On heating this, H2CO3 gives up its CO2, and CaCO3 is reprecipitated, not being soluble in pure water.

Lime water, Ca(OH)2 solution, is therefore a test for the presence of CO2. To show that carbon dioxide is formed in breathing, and in the combustion of C, and that it is present in the air, perform the following experiment:

Experiment 77.--(1) Put a little lime water into a t.t., and blow into it through a piece of gla.s.s tubing. Any turbidity shows what? (2) Burn a candle for a few minutes in a receiver of air, then take out the candle and shake up lime water with the gas.

(3) Expose some lime water in an e.d. to the air for some time.

133. Oxidation in the Human System.--Carbon dioxide, or carbonic anhydride, carbonic acid, etc., CO2, is a heavy gas, without color or odor. It has a sharp, p.r.i.c.kly taste, and is commonly reckoned as poisonous if inhaled in large quant.i.ties, though it does not chemically combine with the blood as CO does. Ten per cent in the air will sometimes produce death, and five per cent produces drowsiness. It exists in minute portions in the atmosphere, and often acc.u.mulates at the bottom of old wells and caverns, owing to its slow diffusive power. Before going down into one of these, the air should always be tested by lowering a lighted candle. If this is extinguished, there is danger. CO2 is the deadly "choke damp" after a mine explosion, CH4 being converted into CO2 and H2O; a great deal is liberated during volcanic eruptions, and it is formed in breathing by the union of O in the air with C in the system. This union of C and O takes place in the lungs and in all the tissues of the body, even on the surface. Oxygen is taken into the lungs, pa.s.ses through the thin membrane into the blood, forms a weak chemical union with the red corpuscles, and is conveyed by them to all parts of the system. Throughout the body, wherever necessary, C and H are supplied for the O, and unite with it to form CO2 and H2O. These are taken up by the blood though they do not form a chemical union with it, are carried to the lungs, and pa.s.s out, together with the unused N and surplus O. The system is thus purified, and the waste must be supplied by food. The process also keeps up the heat of the body as really as the combustion of C or P in O produces heat. The temperature of the body does not vary much from 99 degrees F., any excess of heat pa.s.sing off through perspiration, and being changed into other forms of energy.

If, as in some fevers, the temperature rises above about 105 degrees F., the blood corpuscles are killed, and the person dies.

During violent exercise much material is consumed, circulation is rapid, and quick breathing ensues. Oxygen is necessary for life.

A healthy person inhales plentifully; and this element is one of nature's best remedies for disease. Deep and continued inhalations in cold weather are better than furnace fires to heat the system. All animals breathe O and exhale CO2. Fishes and other aquatic animals obtain it, not by decomposing H2O, but from air dissolved in water. Being cold-blooded, they need relatively little; but if no fresh water is supplied to those in captivity, they soon die of O starvation.

124. Oxidation in Water.--Swift-running streams are clear and comparatively pure, because their organic impurities are constantly brought to the surface and oxidized, whereas in stagnant pools these impurities acc.u.mulate. Reservoirs of water for city supply have sometimes been freed from impurities by aeration, i.e. by forcing air into the water.

125. Deoxidation in Plants.--Since CO2 is so constantly poured into the atmosphere, why does it not acc.u.mulate there in large quant.i.ty? Why is there not less free O in the air to-day than there was a thousand years ago? The answer to these questions is found in the growth of vegetation. In the leaf of every plant are thousands of little chemical laboratories; CO2 diffused in small quant.i.ties in the air pa.s.ses, together with a very little H2O, into the leaf, usually from its under side, and is decomposed by the radiant energy of the sun. The C is built into the woody fiber of the tree, and the O is ready to be re-breathed or burned again. CO2 contributes to the growth of plants, O to that of animals; and the const.i.tuents of the atmosphere vary little from one age to another. The compensation of nature is here well shown. Plants feed upon what animals discard, transforming it into material for the sustenance of the latter, while animals prepare food for plants. All the C in plants is supposed to come from the CO2 in the atmosphere. Animals obtain their supply from plants. The utility of the small percentage of CO2 in the air is thus seen.

126. Uses.--CO2 is used in making "soda-water," and in chemical engines to put out fires in their early stages. In either case it may be prepared by treating Na2CO3 or CaCO3 with H2SO4. Give the reactions. On a small scale CO2 is made from HNaCO3. CO2 has a very weak affinity for water, but probably forms with it H2CO3.

Much carbon dioxide can be forced into water under pressure. This forms soda-water, which really contains no soda. The justification for the name is the material from which it is sometimes made. Salts from H2CO3, called carbonates, are numerous, Na2CO3 and CaCO3 being the most important.

Chapter XXVI.

OZONE.

127. Preparation.

Experiment 78.--Sc.r.a.pe off the oxide from the surface of a piece of phosphorus 2 cm long, put it into a wide-mouthed bottle, half cover the P with water, cover the bottle with a gla.s.s, and leave it for half an hour or more.

128. Tests.

Experiment 79.--Remove the gla.s.s cover, smell the gas, and hold in it some wet iodo-starch paper. Look for any blue color. Iodine has been set free, according to the reaction, 2 KI + 03= K20 + O2 + I2, and has imparted a blue color to the starch, and ordinary oxygen has been formed. Why will not oxygen set iodine free from KI?. What besides ozone will liberate it?

129. Ozone, oxidized oxygen, active oxygen, etc., is an allotropic form of O. Its molecule is 03, while that of ordinary oxygen is 02.

Three atoms of oxygen are condensed into the s.p.a.ce of two atoms of ozone, or three molecules of O are condensed into two molecules of ozone, or three liters of O are condensed into two liters of ozone. Ozone is thus formed by oxidizing ordinary oxygen. 02 + O = 03. This takes place during thunder storms and in artificial electrical discharges. The quant.i.ty of ozone produced is small, five per cent being the maximum, and the usual quant.i.ty is far less than that.

Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, and will change S, P, and As into their ic acids. Cotton cloth was formerly bleached, and linen is now bleached, by spreading it on the gra.s.s and leaving it for weeks to be acted on by ozone, which is usually present in the air in small quant.i.ties, especially in the country. Ozone is a disinfectant, like other bleaching agents, and serves to clear the air of noxious gases and germs of infectious diseases. So much ozone is reduced in this way that the air of cities contains less of it than country air. A third is consumed in uniting with the substance which it oxidizes, while two-thirds are changed into oxygen, as in Experiment 79.