101. Preparation.

Experiment 61.--Dissolve 3 g. sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, in 10 or 15 cc. H2O in an e.d., and bring it to the boiling-point. Then add to this a mixture of 1 or 2 g. calcium hydrate, Ca(OH)2, in 5 or 10cc. H2O. It will not dissolve. Boil the whole for five minutes. Then pour off the liquid which holds NaOH in solution.

Evaporate if desired. This is the usual mode of preparing NaOH.

The reaction is Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 = 2NaOH + CaCO3. The residue is Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3; the solution contains NaOH, which can be solidified by evaporating the water. Sodium hydrate is an ingredient in the manufacture of hard soap, and for this use thousands of tons are made annually, mostly in Europe. It is an important laboratory reagent, its use being similar to that of ammonium hydrate. Exposed to the air, it takes up water and CO2, forming a mixture of NaOH and Na2CO3. It is one of the strongest alkalies, and corrodes the skin.

Experiment 62.--Put 20 cc. of H2O in a receiver. With the forceps take a piece of Na, not larger than half a pea, from the naphtha in which it is kept, drop it into the H2O, and at once cover the receiver loosely with paper or cardboard. Watch the action, as the Na decomposes H2O. HOH + Na = NaOH + H. If the water be hot the action is so rapid that enough heat is produced to set the H on fire. That the gas is H can be shown by putting the Na under the mouth of a small inverted t.t., filled with cold water, in a water-pan. Na rises to the top, and the t.t. fills with H, which can be tested. NaOH dissolves in the water.102. Properties.

Experiment 63.--(1) Test with red litmus paper the solutions obtained in the last two experiments. (2) To 5cc.of alum solution, K2A12(SO4)4, add 2cc.of the liquid, and notice the color and form of the ppt.

POTa.s.sIUM HYDRATE.

103. KOH is made in the Same Way as NaOH.

Describe the process in full (Experiment 61), and give the equation.

Experiment 64.--Drop a small piece of K into a receiver of H2O, as in Experiment 62. The K must be very small, and the experiment should not be watched at too close a range. The receiver should not be covered with gla.s.s, but with paper. The H burns, uniting with O of the air. The purple color is imparted by the burning, or oxidation of small particles of K. Write the equation for the combustion of each.

H2O might be considered the symbol of an acid, since it is the union of H and a negative element; or, if written HOH, it might be called a base, since it has a positive element and the (OH) radical. It is neutral to litmus, and on this account might be called a salt. It is better, however, to call it simply an oxide.

Pota.s.sium hydrate, caustic potash, is employed for the manufacture of soft soap. As a chemical reagent its action is almost precisely like that of caustic soda, though it is usually considered a stronger base, as K is a more electro-positive element than Na.

CALCIUM HYDRATE.

104. Calcium Hydrate, the Most Common of the Bases, is nearly as important to them as H2SO4 is to acids. Since it is used to make the other bases, it might be called the strongest base; as H2SO4 is often called the strongest acid. The strength of an acid or base, however,depends on the substance to which it is applied, as well as on itself, and for most purposes this one is cla.s.sified as a weaker base than the three previously described.

Sulphuric acid, the most useful of the acids, is not made directly from its salts, but has to be synthesized. Calcium hydrate is also made by an indirect process, as follows:

CaCO3, i.e. limestone, marble, etc., is burnt in kilns with C, a process which separates the gas, CO2, according to the reaction: CaCO3 = CaO + CO2. CaO is unslaked lime, or quick-lime. On treating this with water, slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 is formed, with generation of great heat. CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2. Its affinity for H2O is so great that it takes the latter from the air, if exposed.

Experiment 65.--Saturate some unslaked lime with water, in an e.d., and look for the results stated above, leaving it as long as may be necessary.

105. Resume.--From the experiments in the last few chapters on the three divisions of chemical compounds, acids, bases and salts, we have seen (1) that acids and bases are the chemical opposites of each other; (2) that salts are formed by the union of acids and bases; (3) that some acids can be obtained from their salts by the action of a stronger acid; (4) that some bases can be got from salts by the similar action of other bases; (5) that the strongest acids and bases, as well as others, may be obtained in an indirect way by synthesis.

CHAPTER XXII.

OXIDES OF NITROGEN.

106. There are five oxides of N, only two of which are important.

NITROGEN MONOXIDE (N2O).

107. Preparation.

Experiment 66.--Put into a flask, holding 200cc, lOg of ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3; heat it over wire gauze or asbestus in an iron plate, having a d.t. connected with a large t.t., which is held in a receiver of water, and from this t.t., another d.t. pa.s.sing into a pneumatic trough, so as to collect the gas over water (Fig. 30). Have all the bearings tight. The reaction is NH4NO3 = 2H2O + N2O. The t.t. is for collecting the H2O.

[Fig. 30.]

Note the color of the liquid in the t.t.; taste a drop, and test it with litmus. If the flask is heated too fast, some NO is formed, and this taking O from the air makes NO2, which liquefies and gives an acid reaction and a red color. Some NH4NO3 is also liable to be carried over.

108. Properties.

Experiment 67.--Test the gas in the receiver with a burning stick and a glowing one, and compare the combustion with that in O.

N20may also be tested with S and P, if desired. N is set free in each case. Write the reactions.

Nitrogen monoxide or protoxide, the nitrous oxide of dentists, when inhaled, produces insensibility to pain,-- anaesthesia,-- and, if continued, death from suffocation. Birds die in half a minute from breathing it. Mixed with one-fourth O, and inhaled for a minute or two, it produces intoxication and laughter, and hence is called laughing gas. As made in Experiment 66, it contains Cl and NO, as impurities, and should not be breathed.

NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO, OR N2O2).

109. Preparation.

Experiment 68.--Into a t.t. or receiver put 5g Cu turnings, add 5 cc. H2O and 5 cc. HNO3. Collect the gas like H, over water. 3Cu + 8HNO3 = ? What two products will be left in the generator? Notice the color of the liquid. This color is characteristic of Cu salts. Notice also the red fumes of NO2.

110. Properties.

Experiment 69.--Test the gas with a burning stick, admitting as little air as possible. Test it with burning S. NO is not a supporter of C and S combustion. Put a small bit of P in a deflagrating-spoon, and when it is vigorously burning, lower it into the gas. It should continue to burn. State the reaction.

What combustion will NO support? Note that NO is half N, while N2O is two-thirds N, and account for the difference in supporting combustion.

NITROGEN TETROXIDE (NO2 or N2O4).

111. Preparation.

Experiment 70.--Lift from the water-pan a receiver of NO, and note the colored fumes. They are NO2, or N2O4, nitrogen tetroxide. NO + O = NO2. Is NO combustible? What is the source of O in the experiment?OXIDES OF NITROGEN.

NITROGEN TRIOXIDE (N2O3).

112. Preparation.

Experiment 71.--Put into a t.t. 1 g. of starch and 1 cc. of HNO3.

Heat the mixture for a minute. The red fumes are N2O3 and NO2.

Nitrogen pentoxide, N2O5, is an unimportant solid. United with water it forms HNO3. N2O5 + H2O = 2HNO3.

CHAPTER XXIII.

LAWS OF DEFINITE AND OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION.

113. Weight and Volume.--We have seen that water contains two parts of H by volume to one part of O; or, by weight, two parts of H to sixteen of O. These proportions are invariable, or no symbol for water would be possible. Every compound in the same way has an unvarying proportion of elements.

114. Law of Definite Proportion.--In a given compound the proportion of any element by weight, or, if a gas, by volume is always constant. Apply the law, by weight and by volume, to these: HCl, NH3, H2S, N2O.

There is another law of equal importance in chemistry, which the compounds of N and O well ill.u.s.trate.

Weight. Volume.

N. O. N. O.

Nitrogen protoxide N2O 28 16 2 1 Nitrogen dioxide N2O2 28 32 2 2 Nitrogen trioxide. N2O3 28 48 2 3 Nitrogen tetroxide N2O4 28 64 2 4 Nitrogen pentoxide N2O5 28 80 2 5