It is unhealthful to breathe much ozone, but a little in the air is desirable for disinfection.

Ozone will cause the inert N of the air to unite with H, to form ammonia. No other agent capable of doing this is known, so that all the NH3 in the air, in fact all ammonium compounds taken up by plants from soils and fertilizers, may have been made originally through the agency of ozone. At a low temperature ozone has been liquefied. It is then distinctly blue.

Electrolysis of water is the best mode of preparing this substance in quant.i.ty. When prepared from P it is mixed with P2O3.

Chapter XXVII.

CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

130. Const.i.tuents.--The four chief const.i.tuents of the atmosphere are N, O, H2O, CO2, in the order of their abundance. What experiments show the presence of N, O, and CO2 in the air? Set a pitcher of ice water in a warm room, and the moisture that collects on the outside is deposited from the air. This shows the presence of H2O. Rain, clouds, fog, and dew prove the same. H2SO4 and CaCl2, on exposure to air, take up water. Experiment 18 shows that there is not far from four times as much N as...o...b.. volume in air. Hence if the atmosphere were a compound of N and O, and the proportion of four to one were exact, its symbol would be N4O.

131. Air not a Compound.--The following facts show that air is not a compound, but rather a mixture of these gases.

1. The proportion of N and O in the air, though it does not vary much, is not always exactly the same. This could not be true if it were a compound. Why?

2. If N4O were dissolved in water, the N would be four times the O in volume; but when air is dissolved, less than twice as much N as O is taken up.

3. No heat or condensation takes place when four measures of N are brought in contact with one of O. It cannot then be N4O, for the vapor density of N4O would be 36--i.e. (14 x 4 + 16) / 2; but that of air is 14 1/2 nearly --i.e. (14 x 4 + 16) / 5. a.n.a.lysis shows about 79 parts of N to 21 parts of O by volume in air.

132. Water.--The volume of H2O, watery vapor, in the atmosphere is very variable. Warm air will hold more than cold, and at any temperature air may be near saturation, i.e. having all it will hold at that temperature, or it may have little. But some is always present; though the hot desert winds of North Africa are not more than 1/15 saturated. A cubic meter of air at 25 degrees, when saturated, contains more than 22 g. of water.

133. Carbon Dioxide.--Carbon dioxide does not make up more than three or four parts in ten thousand of the air; but, in the whole of the atmosphere, this gives a very large aggregate. Why does not CO2 form a layer below the O and N?

134. Other Ingredients.--Other substances are found in the air in minute portions, e.g. NH3 const.i.tutes nearly one-millionth. Air is also impregnated with living and dead germs, dust particles, unburned carbon, etc., but these for the most part are confined to the portion near the earth's surface. In pestilential regions the germs of disease are said sometimes to contaminate the air for miles around.

Chapter XXVIII.

THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER.

135. Pure Water.--Review the experiments for electrolysis, and for burning H. Pure water is obtained by distillation.

Experiment 80.--Provide a gla.s.s tube 40 or 50 cm long and 3 or 4 cm in diameter. Fit to each end a cork with two perforations, through one of which a long tube pa.s.ses the entire length of the larger tube (Fig. 32a). Connect one end of this with a flask of water arranged for heating; pa.s.s the other end into an open receptacle for collecting the distilled water. Into the other perforations lead short tubes,-- the one for water to flow into the large tube from a jet; the other, for the same to flow out.

This condenses the steam by circulating cold water around it. The apparatus is called a Liebig's condenser. Put water into the flask, boil it, and notice the condensed liquid. It is comparatively pure water; for most of the substances in solution have a higher boiling-point than water, and are left behind when it is vaporized.

(Fig. 32a.)

136. Test.

Experiment 81.--Test the purity of distilled water by slowly evaporating a few drops on Pt foil in a room free from dust.

There should be no spot or residue left on the foil. Test in the same way undistilled water. 137. Water exists in Three States,-- solid, liquid, and vaporous. It freezes at 0 degrees, suddenly expanding considerably as it pa.s.ses into the solid state. It boils, i.e. overcomes atmospheric pressure and is vaporized, at 100 degrees (760 mm pressure). If the pressure is greater, the boiling-point is raised, i.e. it takes a higher temperature to overcome a greater pressure. If there be less pressure, as on a mountain, the boiling-point is lowered below 100 degrees. Salts dissolved in water raise its boiling-point, and lower its freezing-point to an extent depending on the kind and quant.i.ty of the salt. Water, however, evaporates at all temperatures, even from ice.

Pure water has no taste or smell, and, in small quant.i.ties, no color. It is rarely if ever found on the earth. What is taken up by the air in evaporation is nearly pure; but when it falls as rain or snow, impurities are absorbed from the atmosphere. Water falling after a long rain, especially in the country, is tolerably free from impurities. Some springs have also nearly pure water; but to separate all foreign matter from it, water must be distilled. Even then it is liable to contain traces of ammonia, or some other substance which vaporizes at a lower temperature than water.

138. Sea-Water.--The ocean is the ultimate source of all water.

From it and from lakes, rivers, and soils, water is taken into the atmosphere, falls as rain or snow, and sinks into the ground, reappearing in springs, or flowing off in brooks and rivers to the ocean or inland seas. Ocean water must naturally contain soluble salts; and many salts which are not soluble in pure water are dissolved in sea-water. In fact, there is a probability that all elements exist to some extent in sea-water, but many of them in extremely minute quant.i.ties. Sodium and magnesium salts are the two most abundant, and the bitter taste is due to MgSO4 and MgCl2. A liter of sea- water, nearly 1000 g., holds over 37 g. of various salts, 29 of which are NaCl. See Hard Water.

139. River Water.--River water holds fewer salts, but has a great deal of organic matter, living and dead, derived from the regions through which it flows. To render this harmless for drinking, such water should be boiled, or filtered through unglazed porcelain. Carbon filters are now thought to possess but little virtue for separating harmful germs.

140. Spring Water.--The water of springs varies as widely in composition as do the rocks whence it bubbles forth. Sulphur springs contain much H2S; many geysers hold SiO2 in solution; chalybeate waters have compounds of Fe; others have Na2SO4, MgSO4 NaCl, etc.

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE CHEMISTRY OF FLAME.

141. Candle Flame.

Experiment 82.--Examine a candle flame, holding a dark object behind it. Note three distinct portions: (1) a colorless interior about the wick, (2) a yellow light-giving portion beyond that, (3) a thin blue envelope outside of all, and scarcely discernible. Hold a small stick across the flame so that it may lie in all three parts, and observe that no combustion takes place in the inner portion.

142. Explanation.--A candle of paraffine, or tallow, is chiefly composed of compounds of C and H, in the solid state. The burning wick melts the solid; the liquid is then drawn up by the wick till the heat vaporizes and decomposes it, and O of the air comes in contact with the outer heated portion of gas, and burns it completely. Air tends to penetrate the whole body of the flame, but only N can pa.s.s through uncombined, for the O that is left after combustion in the outer portion seizes upon the compounds of C and H in the next, or yellow, part. There is not enough O here for complete combustion; at this temperature H burns before C, and the latter is set free. In that state it is of course a solid. Now an incandescent solid, or one glowing with heat, gives light, while the combustion of a gas gives scarcely any light, though it may produce great heat. While C in the middle flame is glowing, during the moment of its dissociation from H, it gives light. In the outer flame the temperature is high enough to burn entirely the gaseous compounds of C and H together, so that no solid C is set free, and hence no light is given except the faint blue. No combustion takes place in the inner blue cone, because no O reaches there.

By packing a wick into a cylindrical tin cup 5 or 10 cm high and 4 cm in diameter, containing alcohol, and lighting it, gunpowder can be held in the middle of the flame in a def. spoon, without burning. This shows the low temperature of that portion. Burning P will also be extinguished, thus showing the exclusion of O.

143. Bunsen Flame.

Experiment 83.--Examine a Bunsen burner. Unscrew the top, and note the orifices for the admission of gas and of air. Make a drawing. Replace the parts; then light the gas at the top, opening the air-holes at the base. Notice that the flame burns with very little color. Try to distinguish the three parts, as in the candle flame. These parts can best be seen by allowing direct sunlight to fall on the flame and observing its shadow on a white ground. Make a drawing of the flame. Hold across it a Pt wire and note at what part the wire glows most. Also press down on the flame for an instant with a cardboard or piece of paper; remove before it takes fire, and notice the charred circle. Put the end of a match into the blue cone, and note that it does not burn.

Put the end of a Pt wire into this blue cone, and observe that it glows when near the top of the cone. What do these experiments show? Ascertain whether this inner portion contains a combustible material, by holding in it one end of a small d.t., and trying to ignite any gas escaping at the other end. It should burn. This shows that no combustion takes place in the interior of the flame, because sufficient free O is not present.

Next, close the air-holes, and note that the flame is yellow and gives much light. From this we infer the presence of solid particles in an incandescent state. But these could not come from the air. They must be C particles which have been set free from the C and H compounds of the gas, just as in the candle flame.

The smoke that rises proves this. Hold an e.d. in the flame and collect some C. Try the same with the air-holes open. 144. Light and Heat of Flame.--Which of the two flames is hotter, the one with the air-holes open, or that with them closed? Evidently the former; for air is drawn in and mixes with the gas as it rises in the tube, and, on reaching the flame at the top, the two are well mingled, and the gaseous compounds of C and H burn at so high a temperature that solid C is not freed; hence there is little light. On closing the air-holes, no O can reach the flame except from the outside, and the heat is much less intense.

(Fig 33.) (Fig 34.)

The H burns first, and sets the C free, which, while glowing, gives the light. This again ill.u.s.trates the facts (1) that flame is caused by burning gas; (2) that light is produced by incandescent solids. Charcoal, c.o.ke, and anthracite coal burn without flame, or with very little, because of the absence of gases.

145. Temperature of Combustion.

Experiment 84.--Light a Bunsen flame, with the basal orifices open, and hold over it a fine wire gauze. Notice that the flame does not rise above the gauze. Extinguish the light, and try to ignite the gas above the gauze, holding the latter within 5 or 6 cm of the burner tube. Notice that it does not burn below the gauze (Fig. 33).

Gas and O are both present. Evidently, then, the only condition wanting for combustion is a sufficiently high temperature. The gauze cools the gas below its kindling- point.

This principle is made use of in the miner's lamp of Davy (Fig.

34). In coal mines a very inflammable gas, CH4, called fire-damp, issues from the coal. If this collects in large quant.i.ties and mixes with O of the air, a kindling-point is all that is needed to make a violent explosion. An ordinary lamp would produce this, but the gauze lamp prevents it; for, though the inside may be filled with burning gas, CH4, the flame cannot communicate with the outside.

(Fig 35.) (Fig 36.) a, reducing flame b, oxidizing flame

146. Oxidizing and Reducing Flames.--The hottest part of a Bunsen flame is just above the inner blue cone (b, Fig. 36). Evidently there is more O at that point. If a reducing agent, i.e. a substance which takes up O, be put into this part of the flame, the latter will remove the O and appropriate it, forming an oxide. Cu heated there would become copper oxide. This part is called the oxidizing flame. The inner blue part of the Bunsen flame is devoid of O. It ought to remove O from an oxidizing agent, i.e. a substance which supplies O. If copper oxide be heated there (a, Fig. 36) by means of a mouth blow-pipe (Fig.

35), the flame will appropriate the O and leave the copper. This is called the reducing flame. Only the upper part of this blue central cone has heat enough to act in this way. By using a prepared piece of metal, to make the flame thin and to shut off the air, and then blowing the flame with a blow-pipe, greater strength can be obtained in both oxidizing and reducing flames (Fig. 36).

147. Combustible and Supporter Interchangeable.-- H was found to burn in O. H was the combustible, O the supporter. Would O itself burn in H?--i.e. would the combustible become the supporter, and the supporter the combustible? As illuminating gas consists largely of H, and as air is part O, we may try the experiment with gas and air. Gas will burn in air. Will air burn in gas?

Experiment 85.--Fit a cork with two holes in it to the large end of a lamp chimney. Through each hole pa.s.s a short piece of tubing, and connect one of these with a rubber tube leading to a gas-jet. Pa.s.s a metallic tube, long enough to reach the top of the chimney, through the other, so that it will move easily up and down. Turn on the gas, and light it at the top of the chimney. Hold the end of the tube pa.s.sing through the cork in the flame for a minute, then draw it down to the middle of the chimney (Fig. 37, a) and finally slowly remove it (b). Note that O from the air is burning in the gas. Which is the supporter, and which the combustible in this case? O will burn equally well in an atmosphere of H, as can be shown by experiment.

148. Explosive Mixture of Gases.

Experiment 86.--Slowly turn down the burning gas of a Bunsen lamp, having the orifices open, and notice that it suddenly explodes and goes out at the top, but now burns at the base. As the gas was gradually turned off, more air became mixed with it, until there was the right proportion of each gas for an explosion. Figure 38 shows the same thing. Light the gas at the top a, when the tube c covers the jet b. Then gradually raise the tube c. At a certain place there is the same explosion as with the lamp.

149. Generalizations.--These experiments show (1) that three conditions are necessary for combustion,--a combustible, a supporter, and a burning temperature which varies for different substances. Given these, "a fire" always results. The conditions for "spontaneous combustion" do not differ from those of any combustion. See Experiments 34, 112, 113, 114. (2) That combustible and supporter are interchangeable. If H burns in O, O will burn in H, the product, being the same in each case. (3) For any combustion there must be a certain proportion of combustible and of supporter. Twenty per cent of CO2 in the air dilutes the O to such an extent that C will not burn. Hence the utility of the chemical engine for putting out fires. (4) When two