UNDER THE LOVING CARE OF THE FATHERLY LEADER.

by BRADLEY K. MARTIN.

PREFACE.

Here and there among the greenery were palace-like buildings. ... "Communism," said I to myself. ... There were no hedges, no signs of proprietary rights, no agriculture. ... The shop, the advertis.e.m.e.nt, traffic, all that commerce which const.i.tutes the body of our world, was gone. It was natural on that golden evening that I should jump at the idea of a social paradise.-H. G. WELLS, THE TIME MACHINE THE TIME MACHINE Alas, as Wells's time traveler soon discovered, man "had not remained one species, but had differentiated into two distinct animals." The first Eloi specimen he encountered was "indescribably frail. His flushed face reminded me of the more beautiful kind of consumptive."

The Eloi were a gentle, childlike people who stood "perhaps four feet high." In their eyes the traveler detected "a certain lack of the interest I might have expected in them. ... The question had come into my mind abruptly: were these creatures fools? ... You see, I had always antic.i.p.ated that the people of the year Eight Hundred and Two Thousandodd would be incredibly in front of us in knowledge, art, everything. Then one of them suddenly asked me a question that showed him to be on the intellectual level of one of our five-year-old children."

The Eloi proved to be descendants of the wealthier cla.s.ses of humans. However, "all the activity, all the traditions, the complex organizations, the nations, languages, literatures, aspirations, even the mere memory of Man as I knew him, had been swept out of existence. Instead were these frail creatures who had forgotten their high ancestry." Still, "[h]owever great their intellectual degradation, the Eloi had kept too much of the human form not to claim my sympathy, and to make me perforce a sharer in their degradation and their Fear."

The dominant species, the Morlocks, had evolved from the working cla.s.s. Morlocks lived and worked underground, where they kept the machinery that gave them their power. Clever, they treated the Eloi like domesticated herds and lived off them. They were carnivorous, nocturnal. "Beneath my feet then the earth must be tunneled enormously, and these tunnelings were the habitat of the New Race."1 In Wells's imagination it had taken 800 millennia for humanity to change so drastically. In North Korea a remarkably similar evolution took only a half-century The North Korean changes, not likely to be reversed quickly or easily, were largely the work of two men: Kim Il-sung and his son Kim Jong-il (whose gigantic personal movie library no doubt included both the 1960 and 2002 Hollywood versions of Wells's cla.s.sic).

This is the story of how they did it.

ONE.

To the City of the G.o.d-King.

Reading about the personality cult of the North Korean leader had not fully prepared me for what I found when I arrived in Pyongyang in April 1979, 1979, as a member of the first large contingent of Americans to visit since the Korean War. Since I was encountering an economy and society almost unimaginably different from any I had known, the stay was full of surprises. But next to the astonishing all-pervasiveness of leader-worship the rest seemed mere detail. as a member of the first large contingent of Americans to visit since the Korean War. Since I was encountering an economy and society almost unimaginably different from any I had known, the stay was full of surprises. But next to the astonishing all-pervasiveness of leader-worship the rest seemed mere detail.

Everyone sprinkled his speech with straight-faced references to "our Respected and Beloved Leader," "our Great Leader," "our Fatherly Leader." Everyone wore a portrait of the round-faced, unsmiling Kim Il-sung on a gold-framed, enameled badge pinned to the left breast. Larger portraits and statues of the Leader were everywhere.

It gradually became apparent that this was a religion. To North Koreans, Kim Il-sung was more than just a leader. He showered his people with fatherly love. If I could believe what my ears were hearing he might even be immortal, able to provide his followers eternal life. The realization grew during my first few days in Pyongyang. It crystallized as I sat in the Mansudae Art Theater watching a performance of Song of Paradise, Song of Paradise, a musical drama lavishly staged on the scale of a grand opera or Broadway musical. a musical drama lavishly staged on the scale of a grand opera or Broadway musical.

The curtain rises to reveal a nighttime view of downtown Pyongyang. Holiday crowds enjoy themselves as neon signs and fireworks light up the city's impressive skyline of tall buildings and monuments. Son-hui, a journalist played by a buxom soprano, is about to depart on a trip around the country to gather material for a series of articles on the glories of the workers' paradise. She is unaware that the Great Leader, meanwhile, has commissioned a search for the orphaned daughter of a Korean War hero. The crowd-chorus, overcome with joy at the wonders of socialist construction, unleashes a mighty, soaring, swelling hymn worthy of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir: "With the Leader who unfolded this paradise, we shall live for generations to come." a series of articles on the glories of the workers' paradise. She is unaware that the Great Leader, meanwhile, has commissioned a search for the orphaned daughter of a Korean War hero. The crowd-chorus, overcome with joy at the wonders of socialist construction, unleashes a mighty, soaring, swelling hymn worthy of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir: "With the Leader who unfolded this paradise, we shall live for generations to come."

Paradise? To a first-time visitor, North Korea seemed to be providing its people the basic necessities of life. But there was little sign of opulence and I never saw anyone cutting loose and having a really good time. Even on the May Day holiday people seemed to be working-as actors, posing as merrymakers and sub-way pa.s.sengers for the benefit of foreign visitors. A group of little boys in the uniform of the children's corps sat cross-legged in a circle on the ground in a park, playing a game. A couple of hours later they still sat in the same position, playing the same game, confounding the collective wisdom of the outside world regarding attention spans of unsupervised eight-year-olds.

In the deeply dug, sparkling-clean Pyongyang Metro, with its glittering chandeliers and its imposing murals honoring Kim Il-sung, I saw "pa.s.sengers" exit the station via the escalator and then turn around and go back in for another ride-their repet.i.tive all-day a.s.signment, I supposed1. Trains composed of only two cars each stopped for several minutes at each station, and the tracks showed enough rust to suggest that impressing visitors was a more important consideration than transporting people in a city where buses could glide quickly through nearly empty streets.

Still, who could be more qualified to unfold a paradise than Kim Il-sung? A partial listing of his talents would have aroused the envy of a Leonardo da Vinci or Thomas Jefferson. Kim was the country's leading novelist, philosopher, historian, educator, designer, literary critic, architect, industrial management specialist, general, table tennis trainer (the Americans were in town for the world championship)-and agriculture experimenter. "Our Great Leader," said my government-a.s.signed interpreter, Han Yong, "has a small plot at his residence where he tests planting for a year or two."

One officially propagated "legend" about Kim Il-sung's days as an anti-j.a.panese guerrilla fighter in the 1930s and '40s described him as a mighty general astride a white horse, "carrying an enormous sword, cutting a big tree down as if slicing soft bean curd." Another had him walking on water: "Great Leader Comrade Kim Il-sung turned pine cones into bullets and grains of sand into rice, and crossed a large river riding on fallen leaves." To hear the North Koreans talk, Kim must have made himself heir to the ancient Taoist magicians' secrets for transcending time and s.p.a.ce.

Now he was paying more than lip service to pursuing the goal of living with his people "for generations to come." Kim by 1979 was girding up for a contest with the mortality tables. He celebrated, lavishly, his sixty-seventh birthday on April 15 of that year. During his more than three decades at the helm of the country, he had focused his considerable abilities and enormous power on ensuring that he would outlive his rivals one way or another.

The president smoked heavily and a large if nonmalignant tumor protruded from his neck, both negative signs for one who sought immortality. With little fanfare, however (I learned of this many years later), his government had established a longevity research inst.i.tute in 1972 on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday. Researchers there were hard at work to make sure Kim would see his seventieth birthday and his eightieth.

Son-hui joins factory girls who are making merry in a Pyongyang park, on their day off. They sing of "our happy life, which is always in a festive mood." The heroine's adoptive mother, who heads a work team on a farm, comes to the park and chants her grat.i.tude to the Fatherly Leader, who has brought up the orphaned Son-hui to be a reporter. The two women sing a duet: "Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader."

Solicitude toward "war orphans was an important aspect of the image of himself that Kim projected. A quarter of North Korea's 1950 population of 10 million died in the Korean War.2 Afterward, Pyongyang says, the state raised youngsters who had lost their parents, teaching them to think of Kim Il-sung as their father, themselves as his children. Some of those, like the fict.i.tious Son-hui, had grown up to become members of the elite corps of officials and intellectuals. Afterward, Pyongyang says, the state raised youngsters who had lost their parents, teaching them to think of Kim Il-sung as their father, themselves as his children. Some of those, like the fict.i.tious Son-hui, had grown up to become members of the elite corps of officials and intellectuals.

On a night train trip3 to the city of Kaesong, I shared a bottle of whiskey with a man who introduced himself as Bai Song-chul, an official of the Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries to the city of Kaesong, I shared a bottle of whiskey with a man who introduced himself as Bai Song-chul, an official of the Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries4. While other North Koreans I had met sounded totally rehea.r.s.ed, Bai spoke spontaneously and directly through thin lips that often turned downward in a frown or into a sardonic smile. There was intelligence in his eyes, which seemed to try to peer over his dark-rimmed spectacles. Thick hair (black, of course) surmounted a high forehead and an oval yet strong-jawed face. At thirty-nine years old, he obviously was an up-and-coming member of the elite. Not very tall, he carried himself with something akin to a swagger. His forthrightness bespoke a confidence born of position and access to high levels. As the conversation progressed, I felt emboldened to tell him frankly that I could not help finding the Kim Il-sung cult ludicrous. Bai frowned and replied that such a reaction from an American, new to his country, did not surprise him-"but we feel bad when you talk that way "

Bai said all North Koreans had personal experiences that inspired respect and affection for the Great Leader. Bai himself had been orphaned in the Korean War, he told me. "Kim Il-sung came to our village and asked how many orphans there were. He called us together and said: 'You can stay here or you can go to orphans' school. It's up to you.' We went to the orphans' school. At New Year's, Kim Il-sung came and told us: You have no parents, so think of me as your father.'" Bai told his story with force and feeling. It seemed to come from the heart, and I saw no reason to doubt that the filial love he expressed for Kim Il-sung was genuine.

The reporter Son-hui, visiting an orchard, recalls the Great Leader's 1958 teaching that fruit trees should be planted on the hillsides. "Wherever you. go in my homeland, the flowers of His great love are blooming," she sings. "We shall live forever in this land of bliss, with His love and care in our hearts."

Dancing farm women take up the theme and sing: "Let's spread the pollen of love. ... The flowers bloom in the Leader's sunlight."

In North Korea, not just the arias and choruses in Song of Paradise Song of Paradise but nearly all the songs we heard were about Kim Il-sung. Usually singers sang about him tenderly with that sense of exultant yet exquisitely agonizing groping upward toward the ineffable that marks the high-church Christian musical tradition. Television doc.u.mentaries showed the president out among the people, giving "on-the-spot guidance" to farmers. Sweet, sad instrumental music began playing when his face became visible. A television news program showed a foreign visitor picking up a book from a display. The camera moved in for a close-up of the volume, which was one of many works by the Respected and Beloved Leader. Sweet, sad music played as the image lingered on the screen. but nearly all the songs we heard were about Kim Il-sung. Usually singers sang about him tenderly with that sense of exultant yet exquisitely agonizing groping upward toward the ineffable that marks the high-church Christian musical tradition. Television doc.u.mentaries showed the president out among the people, giving "on-the-spot guidance" to farmers. Sweet, sad instrumental music began playing when his face became visible. A television news program showed a foreign visitor picking up a book from a display. The camera moved in for a close-up of the volume, which was one of many works by the Respected and Beloved Leader. Sweet, sad music played as the image lingered on the screen.

People, at least the ones foreign visitors could talk with, spoke about the Leader the same way they sang about him: solemnly but lovingly. Their eyes showed their sincerity, and there was no outward sign of cynicism.

The deputy manager of the fruit farm recalls the days when he fought alongside a soon-to-die Korean War hero-the man for whose orphaned daughter Kim Il-sung has now commissioned a search. As the scene shifts to a realistic-looking wartime battle, the farm leader and other war veterans sing: "For three years and three months I have been under arms. My song echoes home from the trenches when I smash U.S. invaders seeking to rob us of our happiness."

Contrary to the understanding of most of the rest of the world, North Koreans generally believed that the South Koreans had invaded the North to start the Korean War and that North Korea then had gone on to win the war. They believed it as an article of faith because Kim Il-sung told them so. The regime worked successfully to keep at white-hot intensity the people's hatred of American and South Korean invaders and j.a.panese imperialists. Those outsiders, described as forever hatching new schemes to undermine and attack the North, got the blame for any problems at home. Thus, there was no need for Kim's subjects even to consider the heretical thought that the Great Leader and his system might have something to do with their problems.

Son-hui and the women of a fishing village welcome the fishermen back from a voyage. "Let us enhance our honor as proud fishermen of our Leader," the fishermen sing. "Let us gladden our Leader, our Fatherly Leader. O graceful sea, under His loving care, sway your elegant waves forever! Korea's happy, thriving sea, sing in praise of our Leader's kindness."

Hearing of the fishermen's return from the deep sea, the Great Leader has instructed that they and their families be sent to vacation at scenic Mount k.u.m-gang. The announcement moves the fishermen to tears and the audience to applause. "Oh, this is kindly love, a love much deeper than the deepest sea," sings the fishermen's chorus. "Our hearts throbbed with emotion profound when He hugged us still damp from the sea. By our Fatherly Leader's love ... even the wa-ters are touched, and quiver. We dedicate our youth to repaying His kindness. The boundless love of our Leader will last forever, like the sea." applause. "Oh, this is kindly love, a love much deeper than the deepest sea," sings the fishermen's chorus. "Our hearts throbbed with emotion profound when He hugged us still damp from the sea. By our Fatherly Leader's love ... even the wa-ters are touched, and quiver. We dedicate our youth to repaying His kindness. The boundless love of our Leader will last forever, like the sea."

People were constantly telling me stories about Kim Il-sung's benevolence. For example, he supposedly sent a team of doctors with medicine "worth the cost of a small factory" aboard his personal airplane when he heard that a resident of the mountains was critically ill.5 Even writing off 99 percent to propaganda, it was clear that Kim possessed considerable political genius. In his ability to make North Koreans feel close to him and personally indebted to him, Kim operated much like a successful old-time American big-city boss. Whatever anybody got in the way of goodies came in Kim's name, as a "gift." Instead of Christmas, North Koreans celebrated Kim's birthday-and he sent a present to each child, just like Santa Claus. The Great Leader seemed to get out of the capital a lot, offer his "on-the-spot guidance" and let the people see him6. Bai Song-chul told me that Kim was accustomed to spending very little time in Pyongyang. Thus, many people around the country had been in his presence.

Bai said that every North Korean voluntarily wore a badge with Kim's picture. Even if someone happened not to be wearing a badge on a particular day, that did not mean he or she failed to respect the Great Leader. The person simply had forgotten-perhaps had failed to switch the badge while changing clothes.

Son-hui departs for scenic Mount k.u.mgang, where working people on vacation admire the magnificent view of Nine-Dragon Falls. They chant praises of their country, its beautiful mountains and limpid streams. They extol their Leader. "We shall live with Him forevermore," they sing. "The garden of bliss blooms in His sunlight." Son-hui joins vacationers in singing: "Our happiness blooms in our Leader's care. How glorious to live in our socialist paradise. Let us sing of our socialist nation, of our earthly paradise free from oppression."

Vacationing teachers laud the school system: "As soon as you are born you are received by a nursery, then led through a flowery gate to eleven-year education."

Indeed, officials told me, mothers were ent.i.tled to seventy-seven days of maternity leave before turning their babies over to public day nurseries, or in some cases full-time nurseries. "Home education has an important meaning in a society-where private ownership of the means of production is predominant," Kim Il-sung had said in a 1968 speech. "But it has no important meaning in a different, socialist society."7 The state, taking over much of the parental role, had been training youngsters to worship Kim. "Our Great Leader is the Supreme Leader of revolution, its heart and the only center," said one official policy statement. "We have to inculcate in our future generations the absolute authority of the Leader, the indisputable thoughts and instructions of the Leader, so that they may accept them as faith and the law of the land." The state, taking over much of the parental role, had been training youngsters to worship Kim. "Our Great Leader is the Supreme Leader of revolution, its heart and the only center," said one official policy statement. "We have to inculcate in our future generations the absolute authority of the Leader, the indisputable thoughts and instructions of the Leader, so that they may accept them as faith and the law of the land."8 Schoolbooks portrayed Kim in his heroic roles. Their ill.u.s.trations were drawings in the style of children's biblical literature in the United States. Some pictured Kim's exploits, whether real or imagined, as a child and as a young guerrilla commander. Others depicted a mature Kim, sometimes surrounded by children in tableaux reminiscent of the Sunday-school pictures that ill.u.s.trate the words of Jesus, "Suffer the little children to come unto me." A sort of aura or halo was affixed to the Great Leader's head in those pictures.

The training and peer pressure that reinforced such images had intensified over the years. Thus, the young people I met struck me as more fanatical than North Koreans aged forty or older, whose indoctrination had not been as thoroughgoing.

I was suspicious of the notion of total unanimity and said as much to Bai. "Of course, we have people who dissent; that's why-we have police," he replied with his characteristic bluntness-and with a trace of-what may have been irritation that I had put him on the spot. But Bai insisted that simple disagreement with policy didn't equate to punishable dissent. For example, he said, when office workers met to decide whether to help out on farms or in factories, voices against the idea could be heard-but once the group decided to volunteer, everyone in the unit had to go along.

I had heard repeatedly during my stay of measures to guard against "impure elements." On a night drive from the east coast, for example, my driver pulled up at a floodlit guard post. When I asked for whom the guards were searching, the answer was "impure elements." n.o.body would tell me just what these impure elements were. "You "You know," said one North Korean, peering at me like a disciplinarian schoolteacher waiting for me to confess my guilt. know," said one North Korean, peering at me like a disciplinarian schoolteacher waiting for me to confess my guilt. "You "You know who they are." Actually I did not know. When I pestered Bai, he finally grew impatient enough to spit out an unadorned definition. Impure elements, he said, "are spies, people trying to destroy the system. We shoot them." It seemed, then, that "impure elements" were South Korean or American agents, including the saboteurs against whom rifle-toting soldiers were posted at high-way and railway bridges. know who they are." Actually I did not know. When I pestered Bai, he finally grew impatient enough to spit out an unadorned definition. Impure elements, he said, "are spies, people trying to destroy the system. We shoot them." It seemed, then, that "impure elements" were South Korean or American agents, including the saboteurs against whom rifle-toting soldiers were posted at high-way and railway bridges.

"We are free from exploitation," the happy vacationers sing, "free from tax or levy, completely free from care for food or clothing. Our socialist system, which our Great Leader has built, is the best in the world."

Although rather severe food shortages had affected at least some parts of the country since the mid-1970s, North Koreans evidently believed that much of what they had was indeed the best in the world. Kim Il-sung told them so, and few had any basis for comparison. Almost none traveled outside the country. Those who did were trusted officials. The foreign news North Koreans got was carefully selected, with little from the industrialized West. Radios were built so they could be tuned only to the official frequency. "Newspapers" were propaganda sheets that filled their pages with Kim Il-sung's speeches. Articles told of foreigners gathering abroad to celebrate the brilliance of Kim, who had "wonderfully adorned human history in the twentieth century"9 -and whose ideas clearly-were the answers to the problems of the underdeveloped world. -and whose ideas clearly-were the answers to the problems of the underdeveloped world.10 Son-hui and a photographer tour Mount Paektu, "the holy mountain of revolution," and the battlefields of Kim Il-sung's anti-j.a.panese struggle. They sing of Kim's feats in "repulsing the one-million-strong j.a.panese army. Each tree and flower seems to relate the days of struggle against the j.a.panese. On long marches through blizzards He mapped out today's paradise ... our blissful land of today."

An image of Mangyongdae, the president's humble ancestral home, appears in the background. A red sun, another symbol of Kim Il-sung, is projected onto the image. The Korean audience applauds as women soldiers onstage remove their hats and bow to the image.

Kim Il-sung could legitimately claim a genuine guerrilla background. He had fought hard against the j.a.panese colonialists. That gave him impeccable nationalist credentials in a country where it had been all too common for capable and ambitious people to serve the j.a.panese masters. With that starting point, his publicists over the decades of his reign had inflated his image. North Koreans did not credit the U.S.-led Allied defeat of the j.a.panese in the Pacific for their national liberation. All young North Koreans had learned that it was Kim Il-sung and his anti-j.a.panese guerrillas (with help from the Soviet Army in some versions-but in other versions with no acknowledged help at all) who had liberated Korea from the j.a.panese. The Americans got only blame, for spoiling the liberation by occupying the South and dividing the country.

Son-hui visits Kangson, an iron-and-steel center, and gathers reporting materials on "the proud life of the smelters, who are performing miracles." The shop manager, played by a full-throated ba.s.s, exhorts his workers: "Comrades! Let's fulfill our quota ahead of time!"

The "miracles" at the Kangson complex had begun in 1956, my guide told me. That year Kim Il-sung visited a Kangson rolling mill that was considered to have a capacity of 60,000 tons a year. The country needed 10,000 additional tons, the Great Leader said. The managers replied that such an increase would be "very difficult"--which, in Korean terms, means just about impossible. Kim appealed directly to the workers, who a.s.sured him there was no need to limit the improvement to 10,000 tons; they would produce 30,000 extra tons for a total output of 90,000 tons the following year. Indeed, my guide said, the workers responded so enthusiastically to Kim's exhortations that their output doubled in 1957 to 120,000 tons.

Son-hui hears steelworkers sing a rousing number reminiscent of the "Anvil Chorus": "In His warm loving care we are blessed. ... We are highly cultured under the new policy."

The regime had produced literature, museums and public art aplenty under the policy that North Korean culture "must not depart from the party line and its purpose of benefiting the revolution," as Kim Il-sung had instructed one group of artists and writers.11 In practice that meant that, regarding books, for example, a North Korean could read anything he or she wished as long as it glorified Kim Il-sung. In practice that meant that, regarding books, for example, a North Korean could read anything he or she wished as long as it glorified Kim Il-sung.

Many of the museums showcased nothing but gifts the Great Leader had sent for the edification of the ma.s.ses. Some of those were objects that might better have been used instead of displayed, such as overhead projectors and pencil sharpeners proudly shown to visitors in a shrinelike room at a Pyongyang primary school. Others, however, were true relics-stuffed birds and animals and pickled fish, trophies from the Fatherly Leader's hunting and fishing trips. Kim Il-sung University showed off a hunting dog sent by the Respected and Beloved Leader. It, too, was stuffed. Reportedly it had died a natural death.

As for publicly displayed art and sculpture, most of what I saw depicted Kim Il-sung. A j.a.panese newsman, in Pyongyang to cover the table tennis tournament, was sent home early after he filed an article reporting that the gold coating on a sixty-five-foot (twenty-meter) bronze statue of the Great Leader had been removed. His article cited a rumor among foreign residents in Pyongyang that Deng Xiaoping, during a visit not long before, had suggested to President Kim that a golden statue might be a bit too extravagant a display for a socialist country seeking Chinese economic aid.

Son-hui arrives at the village where, following her wartime rescue from a burning house, she spent her childhood. She is deeply moved to see the village now becoming a model cooperative farm. It is harvest time, and "the rice stacks rise mountain-high," the farmers sing. "Let us boast of our b.u.mper harvest to the whole world." The farmers are grateful to the Great Leader: "For many miles around He gave us water and sent us machines to ease our heavy toil. Let us sing, let us dance, let us sing of our Leader's favors for thousands of years."

Bowing deeply, the farmers sing: "Heaven and earth the Wise Leader tamed, repelled the cold front and brought in the best harvest."

After a couple of weeks in North Korea, believe it or not, a visitor could catch himself starting to get used to such extravagant tributes. Outside observers had long remarked the romantic propensity of Koreans, north or south, for excess. Besides, one could reason, the extreme reverence for Kim Il-sung no doubt reflected Korean history. Like China, North Korea had married traditional Confucianism-patriarchal and authoritarian-to Stalinist dictatorship.

Prior to 1910, native dynasties fashioned more or less on the ancient Chinese model had ruled the country. Then, during the 19101945 colonial period, Koreans had been j.a.panese subjects, required to worship the emperor in Tokyo pretty much as North Koreans later came to worship their Great Leader12. "Mansei!" "Mansei!" (Long life!)-the Korean equivalent of the j.a.panese (Long life!)-the Korean equivalent of the j.a.panese "Banzai!" "Banzai!"--was the cry I heard issuing from the throats of thousands of North Koreans who a.s.sembled on May Day, 1979, in downtown Pyongyang's Kim Il-sung Square, to praise Kim for having built a workers' paradise.

My guide, Kim Yon-shik, gave every appearance of sincerity when he explained to me that the people had suffered for so long under "flunkeyism"- meaning subordination to surrounding great powers j.a.pan, China, Russia and the United States-that they were grateful to Kim Il-sung for bringing them out of it.

That might have seemed a plausible account of how Kim Il-sung became a G.o.d. However, around the same time such explanations started to come easily to the mind, so did a small voice suggesting that it was about time to end the visit-before I might start giving thanks to the Great Leader at the beginning of each meal, as North Koreans were taught from nursery school to do. Any day now I might forget that this was 1979, with just five years to go before the end of the current seven-year economic plan and ... 1984. 1984.

The voice urging me to flee grew particularly strong on a day when the American reporters were taken to the Demilitarized Zone. The DMZ, as it was abbreviated, divided north from south. We arrived at a visitors' parking area adjoining the truce village of Panmunjom. As I was stepping out of the car that had brought me down from the city of Kaesong, I took care to remove my pa.s.sport from my bag and place it in my pocket-just in case I should feel the need to make a break. Hit by a fit of temporary madness such as sometimes possesses Western visitors to the Earthly Paradise, I briefly visualized myself sprinting across the DMZ. At the moment we were not yet within sight of the border, but I had visited Panmunjom several times from the Seoul direction and thus had a clear mental picture of the layout. I could visualize the rifle-toting North Korean and American soldiers facing each other just a few feet apart. If I made a dash to the other side, I fantasized, I could then produce the pa.s.sport as my admission ticket to the considerably Freer World.

However, when I got to the truce village I looked across at the outsized GIs, soldiers handpicked for their ability to project an intimidating presence. I saw that they were glaring, with looks of unbridled ferocity, at me and at my fellow Western correspondents. To look menacing and unwelcoming was their job, of course, but they did it so well that the moment of madness instantly pa.s.sed and with it my fantasy of leaving North Korea by other than orthodox means.

Finale in Pyongyang: The people dance, joyously singing of their happiness. The searchers have learned that the reporter Son-hui is the dead soldier's daughter, and she has received her father's hero medal from the Great Leader. She joins the crowd in facing the red sun to sing a powerful, ecstatic, spine-tingling hymn of praise and faith: "Oh, unbounded is His love. We shall live forever in His kind care. His grateful love has given us eternal life. ... We shall relate His everlasting love age after age. Oh, we shall be loyal to Marshal Kim Il-sung, our Leader, our Great, Fatherly Leader."

When I asked what the country would do after the death of the president, a party member replied: "If he dies-I mean, when he dies--we'll find another leader." Kim Il-sung's choice for the job was his son, Kim Jong-il, then a chubby thirty-seven and running the secretariat of the Workers' Party. The younger Kim had disappeared from the public view in the late 1970s. Rumors had said he was dead, or had been injured in an automobile collision and "was a "vegetable." By 1979, 1979, it was known that he was alive and healthy but still his name was hardly mentioned publicly. Rather, he was referred to by the code term "the Party Center" or, often, "the Glorious Party Center." it was known that he was alive and healthy but still his name was hardly mentioned publicly. Rather, he was referred to by the code term "the Party Center" or, often, "the Glorious Party Center."

Many Pyongyang-watchers figured that his curious anonymity had to do with efforts to buy time in which to get rid of elements opposed to such a reactionary phenomenon as a hereditary succession, unknown elsewhere in the communist world. A Soviet newsman stationed in Pyongyang told me the opponents included military men. But the Russian added that Kim Jong-il "has power in the party. He's a strong man, groomed for power and pushing to take over."

Indeed, the younger Kim's days in the political wilderness, if such they had been, appeared to be ending. In September 1978, he had made one highly visible appearance, at the celebration of the thirtieth anniversary of the founding of the North Korean republic, where he had met foreign guests. By 1979, a visitor could see his likeness alongside that of his father in a few of the portraits of the Great Leader that decorated entrances to buildings. Watching television one night I saw a film of the elder Kim, in wide-brimmed felt hat, giving "on-the-spot guidance" to peasants and factory-workers. The Glorious Party Center was along, too, and several times the camera focused on him.

Curtain. Standing ovation. Flowers for the prima donna playing Son-hui.

My guide, Kim Yon-shik, was an official whose regular job was arranging North Korean partic.i.p.ation in international sporting events. One of the few North Koreans permitted to travel abroad, he had been in Guyana in the fall of 1978 around the time of the notorious Jonestown ma.s.sacre, in which members of an American religious cult died in a gruesome murder-suicide spectacle. Kim Yon-shik asked me what Americans thought of the incident. I could not resist framing my reply in terms that might strike very close to the bone for him. "Most Americans see Jonestown as a case of fanaticism," I told him blandly, "people blindly following one leader."

Kim Yon-shik was in his forties, old enough that he would not have been brought up completely in the current system, and he usually demonstrated a good sense of humor. Yet he showed no sign of appreciating the irony in my reply.

"Does the People's Temple sect still survive?" he asked me.

"It's hard," I replied, "for a cult like that to continue for long after its charismatic leader has died."

Kim Yon-shik still showed no sign of recognizing the barb. "Don't you think the CIA was involved in that incident?" he asked me.

TWO.

Fighters and Psalmists.

Concocting a mythology around the nation's founding father is by no means a North Korean monopoly. Think of George Washington's fictional confession to having chopped down his father's cherry tree: "I cannot tell a lie." But while Americans and Europeans in the second half of the twentieth century moved in the opposite direction, gleefully felling the mighty North Korea's official hagiographers carried to previously unknown heights the art of building up the leader.

Western and South Korean historians have despaired of being able to separate historical truth from the Pyongyang regime's innumerable distortions and fabrications about Kim Il-sung's life, especially his childhood and youth. Lacking verifiable facts beyond the most basic, they have tended to dispose of Kim's first two decades with a few spa.r.s.e paragraphs before moving along quickly to the events of his adult life-for which, at least, there are sources such as contemporary newspaper accounts and the records of foreign governments.

However, in the years immediately preceding his death in 1994, Kim produced several volumes of memoirs that offer a somewhat franker, more down-to-earth account than his sycophantic writers had provided in earlier official biographies.

To be sure, many exaggerations and distortions remain even in the newer volumes. For example, whatever quant.i.ty of disbelief the reader has managed to suspend may come crashing down at an account of bandits capturing Kim's father and two companions. While the bandits smoked opium in their camp, Kim wrote, one captive put out the lamp and helped the other two escape before "attacking the rascals, some ten in all, with skillful boxing. Then he made off from the den of the bandits." It was, enthused Kim, "a truly dramatic sight, resembling a fight scene in a movie."

Indeed. No doubt it is is a fight scene in at least one of the countless North Korean movies glorifying Kim and his family. Hw.a.n.g Jang-yop, a leading North Korean intellectual who defected to South Korea in 1997, reported that Kim's autobiography had been "created by artists who had been writing scenarios for revolutionary novels and films. Thus, it made for very interesting reading. When Part I was published it was a huge hit. This was only natural, since its contents were literally scenes straight out of the movies that had been made for the same purpose, and its plot was as interesting as any novel or film." Hw.a.n.g termed the series a "masterpiece of historical fabrication." a fight scene in at least one of the countless North Korean movies glorifying Kim and his family. Hw.a.n.g Jang-yop, a leading North Korean intellectual who defected to South Korea in 1997, reported that Kim's autobiography had been "created by artists who had been writing scenarios for revolutionary novels and films. Thus, it made for very interesting reading. When Part I was published it was a huge hit. This was only natural, since its contents were literally scenes straight out of the movies that had been made for the same purpose, and its plot was as interesting as any novel or film." Hw.a.n.g termed the series a "masterpiece of historical fabrication."1 But there is gold among the dross in the memoirs. Some pa.s.sages can be checked against the recollections of contemporaries-and those pa.s.sages are found to offer more truthful portrayals than we had been accustomed to getting from Pyongyang2. Of course that does not provide the elusive verification for other pa.s.sages dealing with different phases of Kim's youth. But at least it suggests that Kim, as he worked with his writing staff to produce those memoirs in his seventies, had some notion of straightening out his story in the time remaining to him.

Combining what was previously known of Kim's formative years with a careful reading of the memoirs, tossing out the preposterous, tentatively accepting the plausible while intuitively making allowance for exaggerations, adding in the testimony of contemporaries where available, it is possible now to see a picture that is reasonably complex and believable.

Parts of this picture show Kim as the regime had sketched him-but on a more human scale. Toning down some of the official claims has enhanced their credibility. Thus, we can see in Kim Il-sung a youngster genuinely consumed by patriotic anti-colonialism who, while still in his teens, embraced communism as the key to independence and justice for Koreans.

Other parts of the picture were only recently uncovered. Who, for example, would have imagined that the man whose rule wiped out nearly every trace of religion in North Korea-except worship of himself-had been until his late teens not only a churchgoer but, moreover, a church organist? The young Kim was both. Experience in church-related activities played a considerable role in training one of the most successful ma.s.s leaders and propagandists in the history of the world, not to mention providing a model for his own eventual elevation to divine status.3 ***

The Great Leaderto-be was born Kim Song-ju on April 15, 1912, at the home of his maternal grandfather in the village of Chilgol. The nearby house of his paternal grandparents at Mangyongdae, where he spent several years of his childhood, is his recognized family home. Mangyongdae has since been incorporated into nearby Pyongyang, the provincial capital that became the capital of Kim's Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

Kim's regime enshrined the mud-walled, thatched-roofed Mangyongdae farmhouse as Korea's answer to the manger in Bethlehem or Abe Lincoln's log cabin. I visited there in 1979 and found the parking lot and the pedestrian paths packed with thousands of visitors, mostly Korean. A guide said that Kim's paternal forebears had lived at Mangyongdae since the time of his great-grandfather, a poor tenant farmer who worked as a graves-keeper for the landlord. The name Mangyongdae means a place blessed with countless scenic views. As Kim said in his memoirs, "Rich people and government officials vied with one another in buying hills in the Mangyongdae area as burial plots because they were attracted by the beautiful scenery.4 The river Taedong runs past Mangyongdae. Nearly half a century before Kim's birth, that river had been the scene of an ugly incident that represents the unhappy beginning of Korean-American relations. In the context of a push by confident and condescending Americans of the period to open far-flung "heathen" nations to Christian proselytizing and trade, an armed merchant ship in 1866 intruded into the forbidden waters of the Taedong. The General Sherman, General Sherman, aptly named for the American Civil War commander who had laid waste to much of Georgia, headed upriver for Pyongyang, firing its guns, capturing one local Korean official and stopping to permit a missionary- who was aboard as the expedition's interpreter-to preach and distribute leaflets. aptly named for the American Civil War commander who had laid waste to much of Georgia, headed upriver for Pyongyang, firing its guns, capturing one local Korean official and stopping to permit a missionary- who was aboard as the expedition's interpreter-to preach and distribute leaflets.

Then the American captain of the General Sherman General Sherman made the mistake of running aground. An incensed mob of local people descended on the ship, tore it apart and hacked the intruding foreigners to pieces. Kim Il-sung was to claim after taking power that his great-grandfather had been a leader of the people who attacked the ship. made the mistake of running aground. An incensed mob of local people descended on the ship, tore it apart and hacked the intruding foreigners to pieces. Kim Il-sung was to claim after taking power that his great-grandfather had been a leader of the people who attacked the ship.5 True or not, there is no denying that the True or not, there is no denying that the Sherman Sherman incident lived on in the memories of Korean nationalists. Although Korean scholarship suggests the incident lived on in the memories of Korean nationalists. Although Korean scholarship suggests the Sherman Sherman expedition was an act of piracy by known tomb robbers, the incident stimulated a more heavily armed intrusion in 1871 in which Americans ma.s.sacred some 250 Koreans. By 1882, Korean rulers saw that the better part of valor was to accede to a treaty with the United States, arranged by China, which removed the centuries-old isolation of the "hermit kingdom." expedition was an act of piracy by known tomb robbers, the incident stimulated a more heavily armed intrusion in 1871 in which Americans ma.s.sacred some 250 Koreans. By 1882, Korean rulers saw that the better part of valor was to accede to a treaty with the United States, arranged by China, which removed the centuries-old isolation of the "hermit kingdom."6 Kim Il-sung's father, Kim Hyong-jik, managed enough upward mobility to rise out of the peasant cla.s.s into which he had been born. He attended-but did not finish-middle school, and he married the daughter of a schoolmaster. He worked first as an elementary school teacher and later as a traditional herbal doctor. While those accomplishments translated into some social cachet, they did not put extra food on the table. Clearly the family was never affluent.

Kim Hyong-jik married at fifteen to a bride, Kang Pan-sok, who was two years older. The Chilgol Kangs were educated people who included Christian clerics and church elders in addition to teachers and schoolmasters. According to Kang Myong-do, who defected to the South in 1994 and described himself as a member of the Chilgol Kang clan, the Kangs felt the marriage was an unequal one in view of the groom's father's work as a graves-keeper and the fact he owned only a little over two acres of reclaimed farmland. But one thing the families had in common was that they were Christian churchgoers.7 Kim Hyong-jik entered middle school at sixteen and fathered the future Great Leader at seventeen, still living in his parents' home. The whole family worked at extra jobs to pay the teenager's school fees.8 Hyong-jik's mother- Kim Il-sung's paternal grandmother-arose before dawn to make breakfast so she could be sure her son would not be late for cla.s.ses. The North Korean president wrote in his memoirs that his grandmother on occasion awoke far too early. Preparing the meal in the middle of the night, she then stared for hours out the eastern window of the house, waiting for signs of sunrise so she would know when to rouse the student and send him off. A clock was a luxury then; Kim's family did not have one but the neighbor family behind their house did. The grandmother sometimes sent her young daughter-in-law, Kim's mother, to check the time at the neighbors' house. Kang Pan-sok "would squat outside the fence waiting for the clock to strike the hours. Then she would return and tell grandmother the time." Hyong-jik's mother- Kim Il-sung's paternal grandmother-arose before dawn to make breakfast so she could be sure her son would not be late for cla.s.ses. The North Korean president wrote in his memoirs that his grandmother on occasion awoke far too early. Preparing the meal in the middle of the night, she then stared for hours out the eastern window of the house, waiting for signs of sunrise so she would know when to rouse the student and send him off. A clock was a luxury then; Kim's family did not have one but the neighbor family behind their house did. The grandmother sometimes sent her young daughter-in-law, Kim's mother, to check the time at the neighbors' house. Kang Pan-sok "would squat outside the fence waiting for the clock to strike the hours. Then she would return and tell grandmother the time."9 Despite the family's incessant hard work, "such things as fruit and meat were beyond our means," Kim recalled. "Once I had a sore throat and grandmother obtained some pork for me. I ate it and my throat got better. After that, whenever I felt like eating pork I wished I had a sore throat again."10 He remembered his father's younger brother, Hyong-gwon, then eleven or twelve years old, throwing a tantrum over food. Hyong-gwon could not control his disgust with the coa.r.s.e gruel, made of millet and uncleaned sorghum, that was the Kim family's regular fare. He banged his head against the bowl, b.l.o.o.d.ying his head and sending the bowl flying across the room. The future president sympathized. The gruel always tasted bad and, to add injury to insult, the cereal's coa.r.s.e husks p.r.i.c.ked the throat as they-went down. He remembered his father's younger brother, Hyong-gwon, then eleven or twelve years old, throwing a tantrum over food. Hyong-gwon could not control his disgust with the coa.r.s.e gruel, made of millet and uncleaned sorghum, that was the Kim family's regular fare. He banged his head against the bowl, b.l.o.o.d.ying his head and sending the bowl flying across the room. The future president sympathized. The gruel always tasted bad and, to add injury to insult, the cereal's coa.r.s.e husks p.r.i.c.ked the throat as they-went down.11 More significant in shaping Kim Il-sung's thinking than the family's poverty was the timing of his birth, less than two years after Korea's annexation by j.a.pan. Heirs to a proud civilization, Koreans for centuries had condescended to j.a.pan as a cultural Johnny-come-lately. The many j.a.panese borrowings from Korea had ranged from ceramics and architecture to religion. Patriotic Koreans after 1910 observed as National Humiliation Day the August 29 anniversary of the ignominious j.a.panese takeover.

Independence from j.a.pan was the ardent desire of most Koreans in those days.12 Kim recalled that it was a consuming pa.s.sion for members of his family. His father and two uncles were all jailed at different times for pro-independence activities. Kim himself was a patriot long before he became a communist. "No feeling in the world is greater, more enn.o.bling and more sacred than patriotism," he explained. Kim recalled that it was a consuming pa.s.sion for members of his family. His father and two uncles were all jailed at different times for pro-independence activities. Kim himself was a patriot long before he became a communist. "No feeling in the world is greater, more enn.o.bling and more sacred than patriotism," he explained.13 For his family as well as other Koreans, patriotism meant implacable hatred of j.a.pan. Kim recalled that his own patriotic consciousness had caught fire before his seventh birthday during the momentous March 1, 1919, uprising against j.a.panese rule. Joining his family among tens of thousands of demonstrators who thronged Pyongyang in the mistaken belief that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson would champion their cause, "I shouted for independence standing on tiptoe squeezed in between the adults."14 From then on, the determination someday to take on the foreign aggressors guided even his play, by Kim's account. The a.s.sertion has been enshrined in the official mythology. When I visited Mangyongdae the guide identified a sand pile surrounded by a manicured hedge as the site where the Great Leaderto-be had wrestled older children to practice for his life's work. From then on, the determination someday to take on the foreign aggressors guided even his play, by Kim's account. The a.s.sertion has been enshrined in the official mythology. When I visited Mangyongdae the guide identified a sand pile surrounded by a manicured hedge as the site where the Great Leaderto-be had wrestled older children to practice for his life's work.

The patriotism of Kim's family members, like that of many other Koreans, was linked with Christianity. Protestant and, to a lesser extent, Catholic churches flourished in Korean communities following the 1882 treaty with the United States. Pyongyang, in particular, was such fertile ground for American mission work that the city became known as Korea's Jerusalem.15 Following Korea's annexation, the j.a.panese authorities distrusted Christians. There was some irony in this, since missionaries often were prepared to render unto Caesar and ignore politics if only they could continue with their religious activities. The American missionaries' own government had connived in the j.a.panese advance into Korea in exchange for j.a.panese recognition of U.S. interests in the Philippines.16 But j.a.panese authorities repressed Korean believers, squandering what might otherwise have been an advantage. But j.a.panese authorities repressed Korean believers, squandering what might otherwise have been an advantage.17 A number of Christians became identified with the independence movement. Christians were involved in planning the March 1 uprising. A number of Christians became identified with the independence movement. Christians were involved in planning the March 1 uprising.

Kim's Il-sung's own religious training and background represent a side of his early life that he had been reluctant to recall-and finally acknowledged in his memoirs only with considerable hedging about. For example, although both his parents were churchgoers, Kim was intent on a.s.signing them the role of atheistic holy family of the Korean revolution. He insisted that both had been nonbelievers. While some sources have described his mother as a devout woman who served as a deaconess, 18 18 her son claimed she had gone to church only to relax from her exhausting workaday toil, dozing during the service. her son claimed she had gone to church only to relax from her exhausting workaday toil, dozing during the service.19 Kim's father attended Sungsil Middle School, founded in 1900 by American Presbyterian missionaries in Pyongyang. But Kim said his father had enrolled there only out of the desire to have a "modern education" in a school where he would not be required to memorize the very difficult Nine Chinese Cla.s.sics, which were taught at old-fashioned Confucian schools.20 Kim described his father as a young man consumed by patriotism who exhorted schoolmates: "Believe in a Korean G.o.d, if you believe in one!" Kim described his father as a young man consumed by patriotism who exhorted schoolmates: "Believe in a Korean G.o.d, if you believe in one!"21 After the family moved to Manchuria, his father went to every service at a local chapel and sometimes led the singing and played the organ, teaching his son to play also. But this, insisted Kim, was just a chance to conduct anti-j.a.panese propaganda. After the family moved to Manchuria, his father went to every service at a local chapel and sometimes led the singing and played the organ, teaching his son to play also. But this, insisted Kim, was just a chance to conduct anti-j.a.panese propaganda.22 Acknowledging his exposure to Christianity, Kim said he rejected its doctrines while still young. "Some miserable people thought they would go to 'Heaven' after death if they believed in Jesus Christ," he wrote. At first "I, too, was interested in church." Later, though, "I became tired of the tedious religious ceremony and the monotonous preaching of the minister, so I seldom went."23 Kim maintained he was "not affected by religion" despite his youthful connections with the church. Nevertheless, "I received a great deal of humanitarian a.s.sistance from Christians, and in return I had an ideological influence on them. Kim maintained he was "not affected by religion" despite his youthful connections with the church. Nevertheless, "I received a great deal of humanitarian a.s.sistance from Christians, and in return I had an ideological influence on them.24 At age seven Kim moved with his family across the Chinese border to Manchuria. A wrenching move for the youngster, in the larger picture that was part of an exodus that eventually planted Korean communities around the globe, from Tashkent to Osaka to Los Angeles. The Korean diaspora came almost to rival those of the Jews and the overseas Chinese.25 Since the latter half of the nineteenth century, waves of Koreans had emigrated in search of better lives. Many had gone to Hawaii and North America. There, Kim said, "they were treated as barbarians and hired as servants in restaurants and rich men's houses or were worked hard on plantations under the scorching sun."26 Others had gone to the relatively wide-open frontier s.p.a.ces of the Russian Maritime Province and Chinese-ruled Manchuria. Oppression by the Korean rulers of the time propelled the first wave of Korean migrants to those places, around 1860. A famine in northern Korea a decade later accelerated the trend. In the first decade of the twentieth century, j.a.pan's move to absorb Korea as part of the expansion of its Northeast Asia empire triggered another wave of emigration. Others had gone to the relatively wide-open frontier s.p.a.ces of the Russian Maritime Province and Chinese-ruled Manchuria. Oppression by the Korean rulers of the time propelled the first wave of Korean migrants to those places, around 1860. A famine in northern Korea a decade later accelerated the trend. In the first decade of the twentieth century, j.a.pan's move to absorb Korea as part of the expansion of its Northeast Asia empire triggered another wave of emigration.27 Manchuria once had been reserved as the spa.r.s.ely populated homeland of the last Chinese imperial dynasty and its nomadic Manchu clansmen. As the dynasty weakened and migratory pressures built, however, China had opened vast stretches of the region to settlers. Koreans could become no more than tenant farmers in most of Manchuria. The j.a.panese, though, in 1909-the year before they completed their conquest of Korea-extracted from a Chinese government in its death throes a very favorable treaty. Among other things it enabled Koreans to own land in Manchuria's Jiandao Province, immediately adjoining the Korean border. Hundreds of thousands of Koreans made the move to Manchuria before Kim's family did so. The majority went to Jiandao, where the Korean settlers far outnumbered the Chinese.

Economic betterment was an important incentive for those early-twentieth-century emigrants. Considering conditions back at Mangyongdae, it could well have been a factor luring Kim's father to Manchuria. As in the 1860s, though, there were settlers whose motives for fleeing across the border were political. Hoping to continue their struggle against oppressive j.a.panese rule, some determined Korean patriots found sanctuary in Manchuria.28 The region's mountainous areas, in particular, were relatively lawless and free-wheeling places. Chinese warlords, Korean independence fighters, agents of the new Soviet regime in Moscow and a.s.sorted bandits all competed for spoils and influence against the encroaching j.a.panese. Kim described his family as among the political exiles who were driven from their homeland and left to drift "like fallen leaves to the desolate wilderness of Manchuria. The region's mountainous areas, in particular, were relatively lawless and free-wheeling places. Chinese warlords, Korean independence fighters, agents of the new Soviet regime in Moscow and a.s.sorted bandits all competed for spoils and influence against the encroaching j.a.panese. Kim described his family as among the political exiles who were driven from their homeland and left to drift "like fallen leaves to the desolate wilderness of Manchuria.29 Kim's father had become a medical pract.i.tioner by reading "a few books on medicine" and obtaining a diploma from a friend in Pyongyang.30 While working for the independence movement in Manchuria, the elder Kim supported his family by treating patients with traditional herbal medicine. Kim said he often went on errands for his father-but in connection not so much with the medical work as with pro-independence activities. He took food and clothing to some jailed Korean patriots on one occasion, he wrote; and often went to the post office to pick up his father's newspapers and magazines from Korea. While working for the independence movement in Manchuria, the elder Kim supported his family by treating patients with traditional herbal medicine. Kim said he often went on errands for his father-but in connection not so much with the medical work as with pro-independence activities. He took food and clothing to some jailed Korean patriots on one occasion, he wrote; and often went to the post office to pick up his father's newspapers and magazines from Korea.31 He told of having been the leader of a group of mischievous children in the Manchurian town of Badaogou. One playmate belonged to a family of "patriotic merchants." The family's storage shed was full of weapons and clothing awaiting shipment to Korean independence fighters. One day that boy injured himself when a detonation cap exploded while he was playing with it. The victim's brother wrapped him in a blanket and carried him to Kim's father's home dispensary for treatment, Kim recalled.32 An ordeal that Kim looked back on as a rite of pa.s.sage to manhood came shortly before his eleventh birthday. His father sent him from Manchuria back to Korea, alone, he said. He had been attending local Chinese schools and learning the Chinese language as spoken in Manchuria.33 Now, though, the elder Kim instructed him that "a man born in Korea must have a good knowledge of Korea." Kim rode trains for parts of the journey but walked much of the 250-mile distance, carrying a map his father had drawn with a list of places to stop overnight, he recalled. Now, though, the elder Kim instructed him that "a man born in Korea must have a good knowledge of Korea." Kim rode trains for parts of the journey but walked much of the 250-mile distance, carrying a map his father had drawn with a list of places to stop overnight, he recalled.

His father had taken some precautions, telegraphing innkeeper acquaintances to alert them that the boy would be arriving. Kim described those innkeepers as "under the guidance and influence of my father34 -a claim in keeping with what outside biographers describe as a ma.s.sive effort to depict Kim Hyong-jik as a leading light of the independence movement rather than the minor figure they believe he actually was. -a claim in keeping with what outside biographers describe as a ma.s.sive effort to depict Kim Hyong-jik as a leading light of the independence movement rather than the minor figure they believe he actually was.35 Whatever the father's importance in the movement, it does seem that he had many friends. Kim Il-sung said he learned from his father "the ethics of comradeship." Whatever the father's importance in the movement, it does seem that he had many friends. Kim Il-sung said he learned from his father "the ethics of comradeship."36 It appears that as his career progressed he made a.s.siduous use of both his family connections and his father's example of cultivating friendships. It appears that as his career progressed he made a.s.siduous use of both his family connections and his father's example of cultivating friendships.

Kim's anecdotal recollections of his "one-thousand-ri [250-mile] journey for learning" dwell, understandably, on sore feet and hospitable innkeepers. At the foot of Mount Oga, "I fortunately met an old man who cured my blisters by burning them with matches." An inn in Kaechon offered a mattress and two blankets for 50 [250-mile] journey for learning" dwell, understandably, on sore feet and hospitable innkeepers. At the foot of Mount Oga, "I fortunately met an old man who cured my blisters by burning them with matches." An inn in Kaechon offered a mattress and two blankets for 50 chon. chon. The night was cold, but to save money Kim asked for only one blanket; the kindly innkeeper gave him two blankets anyhow. At Kanggye, Kim's instructions from his father said to wire home. The telegraph fee increased after the first six characters, so he kept his message to just six: The night was cold, but to save money Kim asked for only one blanket; the kindly innkeeper gave him two blankets anyhow. At Kanggye, Kim's instructions from his father said to wire home. The telegraph fee increased after the first six characters, so he kept his message to just six: "kang gye mu sa do chak" "kang gye mu sa do chak"-"Arrived safely in Kanggye."37 Back in his home district in Korea after his two-week journey, Kim stayed with his maternal grandparents, the Kangs. One of their sons, Kang Jin-sok, was in prison for anti-j.a.panese activities. (He eventually died there after thirteen years' imprisonment.38 ) Police surveillance of the family was strict and burdensome, Kim recalled. The boy attended Changdok School, where his grandfather was schoolmaster. A memory of those days is that G