TEACHERS

I. QUALIFICATIONS AND CERTIFICATION

Teaching is a profession in Norway. Those following it have chosen it as their life work. The people thus engaged deserve and receive the recognition, confidence, and esteem of the ma.s.ses, and they maintain the dignity of their calling. As a cla.s.s they rank high educationally, morally, and professionally. With the advance in social ideals it has been necessary to raise the standards of preparation for teaching, and, as the years pa.s.s, further changes will be required. For a long time, professional training has been demanded of every appointee to a teaching position, and indications point to a rapid development of the quality of this training until every resource is operative.

The law requires that to be eligible for appointment to a regular teaching position in the secondary schools (middle school and gymnasium), one must have had a course in the university and special training provided in the pedagogical seminary. This means that the candidate has completed: (1) the twelve years of work in the primary and secondary schools, where a wide range of instruction and general culture are provided; (2) a course in the university (four to seven years in length), devoted to exhaustive research in the particular branches of study which are subsequently to be taught; and (3) the course of training given in the pedagogical seminary.

It is the aim and function of this seminary to provide for the university graduates who are to become teachers the most practical and complete professional training possible within the limits of time (six months). It is readily evident that excellence in educational equipment and intelligent insight into the business of teaching are among the accomplishments of the profession. In fact, mastery of the field to be taught and professional training in its presentation are requisites.

The certificates or diplomas issued upon completion of the preparatory work just outlined are the only credentials required of the Norwegian teachers. Being issued by the state they have a standard of value which is uniform, recognized, and honored throughout the realm. Without these papers it would be folly to seek appointment to a fixed (permanent) post.

Besides the regular corps of instructors occupying on full time in the general lines of instruction, there are many special teachers devoting their energies along particular lines of work, such as home economics, drawing, music, gymnastics, and manual training; and still others who teach some of the regular branches of study only part time, whose positions are not permanent. Special preparation is required in order to obtain positions in these specific lines of work.

II. TRAINING OF TEACHERS

Norway early recognized the value of specific training for the work of the teacher. The experiences of other nations served as object lessons ill.u.s.trating the good coming from the services of properly equipped teachers and the dangers of proceeding without such. The state was eager to lay substantial foundations, to conserve and develop every resource, to build permanently and economically, and to profit by the experiences of other systems. Consequently, the people moved forward in a conservative manner and planned for the future as well as for immediate needs.

Utilizing the strong points of other systems and adapting them to local conditions, the state established six teachers' seminaries, locating one in each of the six dioceses into which the country is divided, so that they would be within easy access of the people attending them. Besides these state seminaries, four private inst.i.tutions, having almost identical functions, have been established and are flourishing. The private seminaries are located at vantage points not too close to the State Schools yet where they will be within reach of a large number of people. The favorable location of these schools makes it possible for a large number of the attendants to live in their own homes, while the large majority need be but a short distance from their homes.

The work of the teachers' seminaries is, of course, to provide special preparation for teaching in the schools throughout the nation. Their curricula are similar to those used in the secondary schools. The chief point of difference between them is the att.i.tude taken toward the subjects of instruction. In the secondary schools the aim is general and in a large measure cultural, while in the seminaries the attempt is always to present the lesson or subjects of instruction in such a manner that the pupils shall get both intellectual development and the correct method of presentation. It is the intent that this experience shall help to qualify for the successful teaching of the subjects studied. The work corresponds closely with that done in the normal schools of America or similar teachers' schools in other lands.

It is everywhere true that teachers teach as they have been taught. The principle of imitation is ill.u.s.trated clearly every day in every school room. Teachers, like pupils, follow example more closely than precept.

Providing schools designed to fit people for the teaching profession have ideal teachers, they will be able to turn out from year to year groups of teachers, who, imitating their masters, both in the application of scientific principles of method and in the exercise of individuality, will in turn become ideal teachers. If the curriculum and teaching of the training college are rich and varied, its products will be characterized by efficiency and resourcefulness. On the contrary, should the work of the school be narrow because of a cramped curriculum, or on account of biased and shrunken ideals of the faculty, the results will be unsatisfactory. The teachers who go out from such an inst.i.tution will be unequal to the tasks awaiting them--they will be unable to meet the situation in the educational field.

Since it is a chief occupation of the training school to instill methods of presentation, there is great danger of becoming mechanical, machine-made, or stilted in one way or another. Quite the opposite must be the nature and work of the teacher. The teacher should be able to come down from the high platform and cooperate with the children; to find the individual child and his interests and, in a genuinely sympathetic spirit, to direct those interests; to discard set rules, hard and fast lines, and pet theories; and to open up to each child a vision of the fields before. In order to do these things the instructor must be thoroughly familiar with child life: its nature, mental and physical make-up, processes of development, conditions of growth and activity, instincts, and hopes. He must also cherish and manifest a sympathetic att.i.tude towards youthful tendencies and aspirations, and be able to inspire the pupils to n.o.ble purposes.

The seminaries of Norway, like those of other nations, fall short of some of the conditions of excellence that we yearn for. They do not include a sufficient amount of professional training nor is that which is provided always the ideal type. Nevertheless, an earnest effort is being put forth to approach these higher conditions as rapidly as possible. The course of three years, besides furnishing a valuable fund of instruction, provides a large amount of work in observation and extensive experience in teaching. The training in observation generally consists of work in connection with the state schools (primary and secondary) in the immediate vicinity of the seminary. Into these state schools the seminary pupils are permitted to go and observe the teaching of the regularly employed instructors as they present the different subjects in the curriculum. After having observed teaching for some time and having carefully discussed cla.s.s room procedure with their own teachers, they are required to specially prepare and present some lessons under the close, yet sympathetic scrutiny and supervision of their masters. As time pa.s.ses, more and more of this practice teaching is a.s.signed until proficiency is attained in the presentation of subjects to be taught in subsequent years. While these schools do not incorporate into their activities all things that seem important, it must be said to their credit that they have done a great service in qualifying teachers for the cla.s.s of instruction which has already raised the ma.s.ses to their present place of literary distinction.

Besides the inst.i.tutions providing teachers' training above referred to, there was established in 1907 the Pedagogical seminary. This seminary is affiliated with the university in Christiania but is not an organic part of it. It was founded by act of the Stortbing and is supported by the state. The function of the Pedagogical Seminary is to provide professional training of an especially practical type for graduates of the university who intend to make teaching their profession. The length of the course is six months. Instruction and training provided in this inst.i.tution includes: (1) lectures in hygiene, psychology, history of education, and principles of education; (2) observation of cla.s.s instruction by masters, whose teaching is the highest representation of the art in the city; (3) discussions, formal and informal, general and a.n.a.lytic, with the headmaster of the seminary concerning methods of instruction, cla.s.s conduct, and school management; and (4) practice teaching under the supervision of masters whose criticisms are given in such frank and sympathetic manner as to make them invaluable.

As a rule, those trained in the teachers' seminaries are employed in the primary schools. The students who avail themselves of the advantages of a university education and follow it by the training provided in the Pedagogical Seminary generally become teachers in the secondary schools.

The seminary training in general is of such character that it may be put into use immediately upon entrance into the work of teaching. It also renders vital and usable for purposes of instruction the information and intellectual development gained during the long-continued and intensive schooling preceding such training.

III. TEACHERS' OFFICIAL t.i.tLES

Throughout the school system of Norway teachers are given t.i.tles according to the nature of the positions occupied. In the primary school the man who does the supervising work (in America known as superintendent) is called the _Inspektor_; the head teacher or princ.i.p.al is termed the _Overlaerer_; and the other teachers, male and female, are spoken of respectively as _Laerer_ and _Laererinde_. In the middle school and gymnasium the t.i.tles are _Rektor_, _Overlaerer_, and _Adjunkt_. The _Rektor_ has the supervisory work and some teaching to do; the _Overlaerer_ is one of the princ.i.p.al teachers who has been given the t.i.tle and ranking, chiefly because of fitness and long service; and the _Adjunkt_ is a regular teacher who has served the school for five years or more and has received permanent appointment.

t.i.tles do not correspond strictly to educational equipment nor do they depend wholly upon term of service, though both of these may be and generally are contributory factors. For example: positions in the middle schools and gymnasia are open only to those who have certain educational fitness; the teachers with especially strong qualifications and superior ability are the ones most liable to receive early promotion to the higher cla.s.s positions; and, when promotions are made, the persons who have taught for a long time enjoy some advantage over those with but slight experience. t.i.tles correspond more definitely to cla.s.ses of positions occupied than to any other thing that can be named. When an individual is appointed to a position carrying a t.i.tle, that designation is invariably used in connection with his name. He is no longer John Johnson or Herr Johnson, but _Rektor_ Johnson, _Overlaerer_ Johnson, _Inspektor_ Johnson, etc.

IV. TEACHERS' TENURE OF OFFICE

The teacher's tenure of office in Norway is very different from what we are accustomed to in America. Positions are of two kinds--permanent and temporary. Nearly all appointments in the past have been to permanent posts. This means that the individual occupies his place without molestation or any hint of insecurity until he chooses to resign or until he reaches the age of retirement.[19] Some appointments now are to temporary positions though generally they lead to permanent ones.

Rarely, if ever, does a person who makes reasonable success in a temporary position fail to secure an appointment to a permanent post.

Permanency in position has a number of well-recognized advantages.

Security of situation gives to the teacher a release from the uncertainty which constantly hara.s.ses the minds of so many where frequent change of position is the rule. A lasting appointment enables one to get a firm grasp on the local situation, and to utilize without waste all the momentum acc.u.mulated while occupying in a particular place. Furthermore, the teacher who feels settled in a position is able to establish a home, and to become identified with the community and its interest.

Since teachers continue for so long a time in a position, they and their pupils become as well acquainted with each other as with members of a common family. It is interesting to note how minutely a teacher knows the daily life and habits of his pupils. While the relations are not always the most congenial, they are known to be practically inevitable and impossible of escape so they each make the best of the situation and get the most out of it.

Again, when children know that it will be their lot to come under the tuition of a certain instructor who occupies a permanent post under state appointment, they work faithfully and usually eliminate any criticising att.i.tude. In fact, long terms of service tend to inhibit the criticisms of both children and parents which sometimes attend teachers who occupy positions but for a short time. The situation conduces to a condition of harmony and cooperative activity. The children instinctively feel the authority of the teacher. They know that he has the support of local and state authorities, and that they will cooperate with him in carrying forward his projects. The teacher, in turn, recognizes his responsibilities in the premises and endeavors to occupy acceptably.

Now it is just as true that there are some disadvantages to permanency of positions. Teachers are apt to become non-progressive and in some cases, little more than fixtures. Change of environment stimulates progress and development. Variety in teaching experience broadens the capabilities and increases the usefulness of teachers. In addition, children need the touch and influence of many lives. They receive greater inspiration because of coming in contact with the personality of a large number of teachers. However, too frequent change is wasteful. It dissipates the energy of teachers and breaks the continuity of the work of the children. Where the permanency of positions is absolutely uncertain, the teaching profession is transitory and dwindling. Only a few remain for long time in the work under such conditions. Many efficient school men leave the profession annually because of this discouragement.

At present, the feeling appears to be general that permanency in position should be conditioned upon improvement in efficiency. Evidently a recognition of this principle is a basic cause underlying the increase in number of appointments to temporary teaching positions. This procedure affords an excellent opportunity for weeding out the unfit. At the same time it acts as a spur inducing growth and development.

Progressive tendencies, along with other qualifications, are regarded necessary to appointment even to temporary posts, and, as implied before, success in such positions is a prerequisite to appointment to permanent ones.

In America, teacher's tenure of office is very short. Each year there are many changes in the personnel of teachers throughout the country.

Here we have the extreme of uncertainty, while in Norway they go to the limits of certainty in teaching positions. Both these extremes are unfortunate. Could a golden mean be reached which would include proper incentives to and recognition of continuous self-improvement and a reasonable sense of security in permanent occupation, the profession would call into its ranks a large and more efficient body of men and women, and the schools would make greater and more substantial progress.

In order to ill.u.s.trate the permanency of positions in Norway Table VI has been arranged.

TABLE VI

Table indicating Retirement from Teaching Staff and Reasons for Retirement.

Year | 1890 1895 1900 1905 s.e.x | Male Female| Male Female |Male Female| Male Female ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Total number of | | | | positions | 3941 1187| 4402 2116| 4670 2613| 4865 2885 Total number leaving | 117 17| 88 22| 106 89| 110 90 Vacated after a period | | | | of service from | | | | 1 to 10 years | 19 11| 21 13| 24 65| 20 53 10 to 20 years | 26 4| 10 7| 10 13| 19 19 20 to 30 years | 38 1| 18 | 16 5| 13 10 Over 30 years | 34 1| 39 2| 56 6| 58 8 Reasons for leaving | | | | Death | 30 1| 24 2| 30 6| 32 11 Retirement on pension| 39 3| 48 3| 53 21| 59 22 Change in position | 9 | | 3 2| 4 4 Marriage | 9| 11| 47| 48 Various others | 39 4| 16 6| 20 13| 15 5

It is immediately apparent that the changes in the body of teachers are rare. It is also evident that nearly all who leave the profession do so on legitimate grounds. A few changes result from transfers in position, a large per cent of withdrawals are retirements after extended periods of service, and many vacancies are due to death. Fifty per cent or more of the women who retire do so on account of marrying, a few die at their posts, and many retire on pensions. Very few of the women teachers retire to enter other lines of work. While the table does not indicate how much longer than thirty years some teachers remain in the service, it may be added here that examples are not rare where individuals continue teaching for more than half a century. In most cases teachers occupy the same position throughout their teaching experience.

V. TEACHERS' SALARIES

The salaries received by teachers do not average high in Norway. Many provisions are made, however, for the reduction of their living expenses. All those who serve the school authorities in Norway receive certain benefits appertaining to the positions they hold. For example: There is advance in salaries on promotions and after specified periods of service; teachers are exempt from expense incident to particular offices; school authorities send all official communications through the mail free of postage; teachers receive pensions on retirement from positions; the rural school teachers frequently receive, in addition to their salary, a house to live in and sufficient land for the pasturage of two or three cows, and in towns and cities some of the teachers have homes provided, or are allowed a certain amount per year for living expenses. These and similar concessions and provisions are extended to the teachers according to enactments of the state, individual communes, or munic.i.p.alities. Generally, a regular schedule is made out by which salaries are governed. Table VII indicates the salaries for different positions in eight cities of Norway:

The table is made up from the salary schedules of typical cities of various sizes. The values are in _kroner_ (one _krone_ is practically the equivalent of twenty-seven cents in United States money). We note that salaries are medium in the beginning, and that they increase at regular intervals until certain limits are reached. When we consider these limiting salaries, the long service generally rendered at the highest rate, certainty of position, and the pension to be received upon retirement, we are p.r.o.ne to admit that the advantages are not altogether in favor of the higher salaries paid in our American schools. True, the American teacher generally receives larger returns in dollars and cents, but the Norwegian pedagogue is less mercenary than his American cousin.

He is satisfied when his wants and those of his family are liberally provided for. His life is not strenuous. It is happy and filled with the joys of service and the companionship of youthful souls. Anxieties are in large measure overcome by the a.s.surance that the state will provide necessities when the time for retirement comes. Pensions are graduated according to individual necessity as well as with reference to position, term of service, and salary at the time of retirement.

TABLE VII

Schedule of Salaries paid to Teachers in the Primary Schools of eight cities in Norway.[20]

------------------------------------------------------------------------- Salary After (in Kr.) ---------------------------------- Begin'ng 3 5 6 9 10 12 15 City Position Salary yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs.

------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Christiania Overlaerer 3000 3400 3700 4000 Laerer, h.g. 3000 Laerer, l.g. 1600 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 Laererinde, h.g. 1700 Laererinde, l.g. 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1700

2. Fredrikshald Laerer, h.g. 2200 Laerer, l.g. 1300 1450 1650 1750 1900 2000 Laererinde, h.g. 1250 Laererinde, l.g. 950 1000 1050 1100 1150

3. Sarpsborg Laerer, h.g. 1800 2000 Laerer, l.g. 1200 1400 1600 1700 1800 Laererinde, h.g. 1150 1250 Laererinde, l.g. 900 975 1050 1150

4. Fredrikstad Laerer, h.g. 2100 Laerer, l.g. 1400 1550 1700 1850 2000 2100 Laererinde, h.g. 1200 Laererinde, l.g. 1000 1100 1200

5. Drammen Overlaerer 2600 Laerer, h.g. 2300 2400 Laerer, lg. 1400 1600 1800 2000 2100 2300 Laererinde, h.g. 1300 1400 Laererinde, l.g. 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

6. Horten Laerer, h.g. 2000 2200 Laerer, l.g. 1300 1500 1700 1850 2000 Laererinde, h.g. 1100 1200 Laererinde, l.g. 900 950 1000 1050 1100