The school board may also order that there be a teachers' commission (_Laererraad_) for each school or for the several schools using the same buildings, consisting of the teachers in the school. The chairman of this committee is the superintendent of schools, a school princ.i.p.al, or other member, according to the determination of the board. The duties devolving upon this commission are in each case outlined by the board.

The superintendent of schools (_Skoleinspektor_) has general direction of all the primary schools in the city system. His duties are similar to those of the superintendent in American towns and cities. He takes the lead in directing the policies of the schools and exercises large powers in making them efficient. He is provided with well-equipped offices, generally in one of the school buildings, where he and his clerks, supplied by the school board, do the greater portion of their work.

A princ.i.p.al or headmaster (_Overlaerer_) is generally placed in charge of each school. His duties are comparable to those performed by ward princ.i.p.als in the United States. While the superintendent is the superior officer and exercises general control and authority, the princ.i.p.al has immediate charge of the work of the school. He controls its activities in harmony with and under the direction of the superintendent, consulting the wishes of the higher official and respecting his opinions. The superintendent recognizes that for the one in immediate charge of a school to have his hands tied or his liberties too circ.u.mscribed means the hampering of the work; hence, he gives to the princ.i.p.als working under him wide lat.i.tude in carrying out their ideas. For example, if the princ.i.p.al is a believer in coeducation or, on the other hand, a staunch advocate of segregation of the s.e.xes for instructional purposes, he is usually privileged to carry his policy into execution in his school, even though the views of the superintendent are not wholly in accord therewith. Throughout their work they seek each other's counsel and advice, and cooperate successfully.

The private citizen in Norway plays only an indirect part in school affairs, yet his interests are conserved in various ways. The local pastor, who is a member _ex officio_ of the school board, generally guards the interests of the ma.s.ses. His influence and vote may be regarded usually as a reflection of the popular mind. The chairman of the munic.i.p.al council, who also is a member of the board by virtue of his position, is indirectly the choice of the people. The teacher or teachers chosen to occupy on the school board nearly always work in harmony with the public will. The committee of inspection has a majority of its members chosen directly by vote of the people immediately concerned. The press is free and educational movements are continually discussed in the leading papers. Further than this, educational affairs are common topics of conversation, being talked of on all occasions under various circ.u.mstances and conditions. It may be said to their credit that those discussing these subjects do so intelligently and critically. The ma.s.ses are alive to the educational situation, are intensely interested in their schools, and are acquainted with the provisions of the law concerning them. The people being so democratic in tendency and so very frank in the expression of their feelings and opinions, naturally reflect public sentiment; which because of being understood has more weight and is correspondingly a greater factor in legislative activities.

The primary schools receive their financial support from the state, county, and commune. The state provides for city schools one-third of straight salaries, which range between twelve hundred and fourteen hundred crowns for men, and between eight hundred and nine hundred crowns for women; two-thirds of additional salary paid because of long service to the limit of eight hundred crowns per year for men and five hundred crowns per year for women; and one-third of salaries paid for positions requiring only part time, for teaching by the hour, and for teaching in continuation schools. In certain cases where the treasuries are depleted the state treasury furnishes as high as forty-five per cent of teachers' salaries within the fixed limits mentioned above. In the rural communes the grant received from the state amounts to forty-five per cent of the teachers' salaries, and where finances are low this amount may be increased to sixty per cent. The amount of this state grant is figured on the basis of salaries that do not exceed twenty-four crowns per week in the second or higher division, and nineteen crowns in the first or infant division of the primary school, except in the county of Finnmarken where the bases may be respectively twenty-eight crowns and twenty-two crowns per week.

In each county (_Amt_) the county council provides funds for the following purposes: raising teachers' salaries in case of long service, erecting school buildings, supplying teachers' homes, paying subst.i.tute teachers, purchasing apparatus, relieving communes and munic.i.p.alities where school expenses are disproportionately high, and maintaining continuation and artisan schools. Whatever is required to defray the expenses of the primary schools, in addition to state and county grants, tuition, receipts from school lands or holdings, etc., is furnished by the commune or munic.i.p.ality through its council.

The secondary schools are either state or communal. The state schools are provided with grounds, buildings, and equipment by the communes in which they are located; the remaining expenses are met by state grants, tuition fees, etc. The expense of maintaining communal schools falls largely upon the communes. The state furnishes one-third of the salaries in both cla.s.ses of schools, and all additional amounts paid to teachers because of long service. While most of the secondary schools charge regular tuition fees, all of them have funds which supply free scholarships to a number of pupils each year. In some communes they have been able already to provide free middle schools, and it appears at least possible that all state and communal schools may sometime be free.

The aim in financing the school system is to equalize the burden of expense as far as possible, and to recognize, at the same time, the efforts of those directly concerned. In order to obtain the best results, authority has been strongly centralized; school boards, communal and county councils, and state officials exercise large discretionary powers.

VI. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS

The school buildings of Norway are justly reputed to be the most magnificent, best located, and finest edifices of the country. They are built of substantial materials according to attractive architectural designs, and are provided with liberal equipment. The larger buildings are usually constructed of stone, brick and stone, or brick and cement; while the smaller ones are built of lumber and stone. In the erection of buildings, great care is exercised to make them s.p.a.cious and permanent.

All materials used are selected because of their durability and suitability to purpose. In order to guarantee the best hygienic conditions, the law provides that buildings must meet the approval of experts in hygiene before they can be used for school purposes. This means that the services of these experts must be secured in getting out designs for school buildings, whether in the erection of new or the remodeling of old ones.

The school buildings are heated by furnaces or stoves. The newer ones are modern in every respect and, of course, have excellent heating systems. Those which have done service for several decades are usually heated by stoves.

The buildings are divided into rooms in such a manner that the daylight nearly always enters from the left or the rear of the pupils when they are seated at their desks. This rule is disregarded only in rare cases.

During the short days of winter it is essential to provide artificial light. In cities and large towns they use electricity for lighting the school buildings; in the country or in small towns, where the munic.i.p.alities do not maintain any central lighting plant, various devices are installed. Sometimes gasoline is used and again ordinary oil lamps are common. An abundance of light of the best procurable quality is generally provided.

Besides admitting light the outside windows are of use in providing ventilation for the school rooms. They are opened wide during intermissions between cla.s.ses, so that when the children come in from their exercise on the play grounds they enter an atmosphere nearly as pure and fresh as that out of doors. In addition, many schoolhouses, especially those built recently, have regular ventilating devices.

The cla.s.s room furniture in Norway, like that used in many other European schools, is about as primitive in design and lacking in attractiveness as anything found in the whole country. Its evolution surely has been greatly r.e.t.a.r.ded. In each room there is a small platform high enough to enable the instructor to see all his pupils with ease. On this platform is a desk and a high chair in which the teacher sits most of the time while giving instruction.

The pupils' seats and desks are made of heavy lumber and attached to a common base. This makes them clumsy, and they appear very queer to one accustomed to the better designs now in use in some countries. Those of recent make are for but one pupil, though older ones, some of which are still in use, accommodate three or four. In construction the seat is generally a solid flat bench with a low back. The desk has a slightly sloping top, a small inconvenient shelf for books, and a receptacle for pencils, pens, rulers, and other articles used by school children. The Norwegians deserve commendation for the care exercised in the arrangement of seats and desks. The distance and proportion between them are regulated according to scientific principles looking to the physical welfare of the occupants. The bodily posture of children in school determines in large measure what it will be out of school. Far too little attention has been given the physical side of education, and one of the important problems in connection therewith is the proper construction of schoolroom furniture.

In the smaller buildings, cla.s.srooms have commodious cupboards for apparatus (maps, charts, globes, plates, etc.), and various things with which the children work (sewing materials, exercise books, etc.). While they have a liberal supply of excellent ill.u.s.trative material and teaching apparatus and the best of facilities for storing it, mechanical appliances for its display and devices for its convenient use are woefully lacking. Maps and charts are held in the hand or hung on a nail or other fixture in the room; while globes and the like are placed on chairs or improvised stands. In general the apparatus is awkward to manipulate and as a result much of its value is lost.

Blackboards of proper size are very rare in the schools of Norway. As a rule the board is about three by five feet in size and fastened to a clumsy easel which elevates it so high that it is out of reach of the pupils. To enable the children to use such a board a small platform is provided. The child mounts the platform by means of a few steps and there stands and does his blackboard work. In only one instance did the writer during his visits to the schools find what appeared to him to be an adequate amount of blackboard s.p.a.ce. This exceptional condition was in one of the primary schools where special equipment was installed for the instruction of children below normal intelligence. The ample provision of blackboard here is proof of a recognition of its value, and the situation may also be regarded as an indictment against the prevalent neglect in this line.

School room decorations are not as prominent as might be expected.

Despite the facts that the whole of Norway is picturesque, that her artists are quite numerous, and that the ma.s.ses of her people are more than ordinarily appreciative of the finer phases of life, very few paintings or pieces of sculpture adorn her schools. True, exceptions as to this rule of scant provision of the artistic may be found; but, as in all countries, they quite generally fail to appreciate the educative values of art.

While, traditionally at least, the study and recitation rooms have been considered of prime and greatest importance in school buildings, there are others, accessory to them, which in their effects are productive of quite as good results. Among them may be mentioned: offices, teachers'

rooms, libraries, laboratories, and other rooms for special purposes.

Some of these are not provided in all schools, but commonly all of them are found in the city school buildings.

The offices for rectors, inspectors, head masters, etc., are admirably arranged and handsomely appointed. They are provided with desks, cabinets, chairs, settees, tables, and other furnishings which add to convenience and comfort. The rooms for teachers are equipped and furnished in a way just as suitable to their purpose. In these they spend their vacant periods in study, reading, or in leisure, according to their choice. Here, too, officers and teachers are served with luncheons in the middle of forenoon and afternoon sessions.

There are libraries in nearly all school buildings. While many of them are small some are of large consequence. The one in the Christiania Cathedral School numbers thirty thousand volumes. This is one of the oldest and perhaps the largest library in any school of the country, and it is regarded with considerable justifiable pride.

The laboratories are furnished in harmony with their traditional plan of instruction. Instead of having a supply of apparatus so that most or all of the pupils may be occupied simultaneously in laboratory experimentation, they have but one set of instruments. However, they do furnish liberal quant.i.ties of materials for laboratory experimentation.

The teacher is the chief operator, one or two pupils a.s.sist in the work, and the other members of the cla.s.s are onlookers.

Where domestic arts are taught, rooms are fitted up especially for the purpose. Stoves, cooking utensils, and many other necessary articles are at hand ready for use. The efficiency of the work is in no wise hindered by lack of supplies. In many instances teachers go themselves to the markets and purchase provisions needed for the day. An earnest effort is made to combine theory and practice in proportions suitable to obtaining the best possible results.

Some of the larger buildings have special rooms for the storing of apparatus and ill.u.s.trative materials (_Anskuelsesmidler_). Racks, cupboards, cabinets, drawers, cases, and the like provide convenient means for preserving these supplies and of rendering them easily accessible. Gymnastic halls and lunch rooms will be discussed in another section.

The playgrounds are generally small, but some of the schools have, in addition to the grounds immediately surrounding the buildings, athletic parks of considerable proportions. The grounds about the school buildings are arranged with a view of securing from them maximum returns. They are enclosed by high board or wire fence, or by stone or brick and cement walls. A heavy coating of gravel is usually placed on the ground in order to avoid the growth of vegetation or an acc.u.mulation of dust. "Keep off the gra.s.s" signs are not in evidence, for rarely do they attempt to have gra.s.sy lawns.

They recognize the need and value of physical exercise in the open, and provide means for it in connection with every school. It is specifically required that all pupils go on to the playgrounds during the intermissions (_fri Krarterer_) which come between all lessons. While the children are at play one or more of the teachers are detailed to supervise the grounds, while others are to patrol the hallways. Large roofs are put up under which the children play when the weather is not favorable to being in the open. On rare occasions when the weather is bitter, pupils may be permitted to remain indoors. Children whose health is extremely delicate are dealt with in leniency, and some of them are permitted to remain inside regularly.

Near to the school buildings, generally on a corner of the grounds, homes are provided for the head master or princ.i.p.al and the janitor (_Vagtmester_). Sometimes the janitor and his family live in an apartment in the school building. Generally, however, a double house is erected, one part for the princ.i.p.al and the other for the janitor. These homes are furnished rent free to these men.

Teachers in rural districts, as a rule, are supplied with a house and sufficient ground for garden and the pasturage of two or three cows.

These provisions materially reduce living expenses, and, in a way, recompense for the low salaries received. In one rural school the writer found three hundred and fifty pupils taught in two divisions--forenoon and afternoon sessions--by six teachers. The princ.i.p.al had been in charge of the school forty-three years. One portion of the school building provided a residence for him and his family. They had a small garden; a fruit orchard; a few acres of land for pasturage and hay; and a barn and sheds for cow, pig, and chickens. There are many similar situations throughout the country. This particular one lay just outside a small city, and this fact accounts in part for the large number of pupils in attendance.

As a rule the homes for rural school teachers compare very favorably with the better cla.s.s of homes in the surrounding neighborhood. They have sufficient room, are comfortable, and generally satisfy the occupants. The majority of rural teachers have such homes provided, though only a few city teachers enjoy this favor. In 1905, two thousand, eight hundred and twenty-six rural teachers had homes furnished them free of cost.

VII. GENERAL FEATURES OF INNER ORGANIZATION

Most of the teachers in the rural primary schools are men, while the majority of them in the city are women. During the year 1907 there were four thousand, one hundred and twenty-three male and one thousand, four hundred and seven female teachers occupying regular positions in the rural schools, and in the city their numbers were respectively eight hundred and twenty-eight and one thousand, six hundred and six. Although the law makes no requirements as to s.e.x, except that in city schools there must be at least one master and one governess, there are certain forces operative which almost equal edicts of law. Traditionally, teachers in the rural schools are men and, as previously stated, homes are provided for them and their families. Appointments to teaching positions are permanent. Teachers remain in their places until death removes them or until they choose to retire on pension, which is, all too often, long after they pa.s.s the time of their efficiency. It is difficult to break with the old customs and hence the entrance of women teachers into the rural school positions has been slow. In the cities the conditions are different. There only a small percentage of the teachers have homes furnished them, the number of teaching positions without supervising responsibility is large, and the salaries paid to women are lower than those paid to men. As a consequence the female teachers have found easy entrance into the city schools, and at present they outnumber the men two to one. Women have been teaching since 1869, and the people are convinced that their ability as teachers is equal to that of the sterner s.e.x.

In the secondary schools, also, the majority of the instructors are men.

In the gymnasia practically all of them are men, but in the middle schools there are many women teachers. Even though the Norwegians recognize woman's ingenuity and efficiency in teaching small children, they have not yet become converted to the idea that she is man's equal in the more advanced educational fields. It seems probable that tradition is the chief hindrance to the entrance of women into teaching positions in the gymnasia.

In their plan of instruction there is much to commend and some things to criticise. The teachers do a large amount of teaching, but they also provide opportunity for the children to do a great deal on their own initiative, so that they too may know the joy of discovery and feel the triumph of mastery. The Norwegian pedagogue uses the recitation period, nearly always fifty minutes, in an endeavor to impart information, both directly and indirectly; directly by straightforward giving, and indirectly through cooperative mental activities. While they feel the importance of direct instruction, they see, also, the advantage in shifting a part of the responsibility to the pupils. They recognize the fact that the child has ability, and that by himself he is capable of finding and recognizing problems, and of working them out to satisfying conclusions. They appreciate that even a small child is able to carry out many educative activities with a minimum of direction from the teacher, and that the development which comes from this self-direction and initiative is one of the most valuable ends of education. The intent is that the cla.s.s period shall be devoted to exercises which will furnish information and, at the same time, make the children independent and able to direct themselves.

Though the ideals and aims are excellent, the means for attaining them are not the best. There is a certain inherited aloofness on the part of the instructor which robs both teacher and pupils of some of the values which come from closer a.s.sociation. During the recitation hour the teacher nearly always occupies the high chair on the elevated platform, except while using the blackboard or doing other demonstrational work.

My observations convince me that the teachers, especially the men, do not get down and work among and with the children as much as seems essential to the accomplishment of the greatest good.

Now the discipline and character of recitations also deserve attention.

When a pupil is called upon to recite, he is expected to pa.s.s to the aisle and there stand erect until the recitation is completed. Only in rare cases are children allowed to sit while reciting. I have seen children only eleven or twelve years of age called to the front of the room to a.n.a.lyze and develop a problem. The smallest children are required to give only short answers to questions, but responses rapidly increase in length, as age advances, until they amount to minute and extended discussions of topics. Recitations lasting ten to fifteen minutes are not uncommon, and the children become quite expert in the relation of facts and in the development of problems presented. This method of procedure is perhaps all right for a certain cla.s.s of children, but timid boys and girls are sometimes embarra.s.sed to the extent that they are unable to do credit to themselves, their teachers, or the lessons. On one occasion I saw a boy who was so frightened in an attempt to stand and recite, being required at the same time to look into the face of a complaining teacher, that he was unable to say anything whatever. The teacher, a man of advanced age, finally awoke to the situation, and placing his hand on the boy's head, talked to him about the lesson until he calmed the lad's fears and obtained a very satisfactory response from him.

In addition to cla.s.sroom activities connected with mental growth, considerable work is done looking to physical development. Gymnastic exercise is required of all children in primary and secondary schools, excepting those in first and second grades and a few who are physically disqualified for it. To provide for this work, the city schools furnish large halls with excellent equipment, and special teachers to give instruction. A Swedish system of gymnastics is in vogue throughout the country. There seems to be no criticism against the system, and the benefits testify emphatically to its efficiency. The apparatus is simple and inexpensive, but the variety of movements and the numberless combinations of them seem to answer every demand.

Certain conditions and customs prevailing in Norway make it necessary to serve lunches at the school buildings. The morning sessions are long and the dinner hour is far later than noon--generally two or three o'clock.

Furthermore, many children of poor parentage come to school underfed.

Opportunity to obtain a light lunch of nourishing food and a warm drink at about 10:30 or 11 o'clock is an appreciated necessity. Hence most buildings have lunch rooms arranged and equipped according to local demands. Here, in the secondary schools, the family of the janitor furnishes rolls, buns, cakes, cocoa, coffee, milk, etc., at a reasonable rate. As stated before, the teachers have lunches served in their own rooms. Some cities provide children in the primary schools with one meal of wholesome food each day of school during the winter months--generally from the middle of October until the first of May. This is free to the needy children, and others obtain it at first cost.

In Christiania they have a central kitchen from which the city primary schools receive supplies. This kitchen has a capacity for steam cooking, ten thousand liters at a time. Only the best food is purchased.

This is carefully prepared and delivered every day in tightly sealed cans to the several schools where it is served hot. The maintenance of this kitchen is in answer to recommendations made by a committee, appointed by the school board, after visiting various similar European inst.i.tutions and studying carefully into their operations. In equipment, management, and good results it is not surpa.s.sed in any city in Europe or America. In some of the schools, hundreds of free meals are dispensed every day throughout the long winter. During the year 1908-1909, from October 19, 1908, to April 30, 1909, (one hundred and thirty-two days), the Christiania central kitchen furnished 616,821 free meals and 77,733 meals which were paid for by children in the schools. This work stands as a testimonial to the beneficence of the people whose circ.u.mstances enable them to maintain it.

The discipline of the school borders on the military order. The pupils form in line and march in pa.s.sing to and from cla.s.srooms and playgrounds. While the work of instruction proceeds strict discipline is maintained. Before entering a cla.s.sroom where a recitation is in progress, one invariably knocks at the door, whoever he is and whatever his errand, and by the time he enters teacher and pupils are on their feet. Turning to the one entering, they bow and continue to face him until he is seated, which is a signal to them to sit. Should the visitor withdraw before the cla.s.s is dismissed, the pupils again rise to their feet and bow him out; but, if he remains until they are dismissed, they bow to him before taking their departure. Every activity indoors and out of doors is closely supervised, and the control exercised over the pupils is praiseworthy.

Attendance at school is regular in all grades. When children are absent for any reason the case is inquired into without delay, and, unless satisfactory excuse or explanation is forthcoming, the truant officers are on hand to enforce regulations. Failure to comply with the laws regarding absence from school, subjects parents or guardians of children to a fine of from one to twenty-five crowns.[18] Very rarely is an enforcement of these laws necessary, for the people are generally law-abiding and peace-loving. Being eager for development, they gladly comply with educational provisions without any compulsion, and regularity in attendance is the universal practice. Sickness is perhaps the most common excuse given for absence and, since excellent health is characteristic of the people, this is infrequent.

Pupils are nearly always healthy, vigorous, and robust. One of the chief points calling attention to this is the rarity of cases where gla.s.ses are worn. In visiting schools I noticed that spectacled children were very few. I was at first inclined to criticise what I interpreted to be neglect of the eyes, but soon found that eyesight, as well as the general health of the children, was being carefully guarded. Every school has its physician whose duty it is to regulate sanitation and to remedy physical defects of children. I ascertained that in some schools special examinations had been conducted for the testing of eyesight, and results showed that very few of the pupils were under the necessity of wearing gla.s.ses. Among the causes contributing to this favorable situation may be mentioned a healthful climate, regular drill in gymnastics, proper lighting of school rooms, good ventilation, physical exercise in the open between successive cla.s.ses, and, in general, the maintenance of a high state of physical vigor. The Norse take justifiable pride in their physical development, and they pay considerable attention to this phase of education. Consequently the children are able to attack the strenuous activities of school life with vim, and mastery of the course of study is not a hardship.

Chapter II