The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense requires. We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it (Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).

The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:--

Cause = _At, over, of._

Example.--_Mi enuas je la hejmo_, or, _Mi enuas la hejmon_ = I am weary (tired) of home.

Manner = _By, on._

Examples.--_Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia li batis lin sur la vizagon_ (or, _li frapis al li la vizagon_) = He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he struck him on the face (struck to him the face). _Mi gratulas vian princan moston je_ (or, _pri_) _la reveno Danujon_ = I congratulate your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to Denmark.

Time = _At, on._

Examples.--_Je la kvara horo_ = At 4 o'clock. _Je la lasta fojo_ (or, _La lastan fojon_) _mi vidis lin ce vi_ = On the last occasion (last time) I saw him with you.

Measure = _Of, by._

Example.--_Longa je dek futoj_, or, _Longa dek futojn_ = Ten feet long.

259 (16). Kontrau = _Against, opposite._

Never used in the sense of "by the side of." May take the accusative of direction.

Place = _Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite._

Example.--_La fenestro kontrau la strato_ = The window overlooking (towards) the street.

Opposition = _To, against, from._

Examples.--_Vizagon kontrau vizago_ = Face to face. _Kontrau min mem, sin turnis mia ruzo_ = Against myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). _Kien ili iras? Kontrau Polujon_ = Whither are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet, IV, 4). _Mi sidis sur stono, kie mi estis sirmata kontrau la orienta vento_ = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from (against) the east wind. _Li batalis kontrau la grekoj_ = He fought with (= against) the Greeks.

As a prefix, _kontrau_ denotes opposition, as:--_Kontraudiri_ = To contradict. _Kontraumeti_ = To oppose.

259 (17). Krom = _Not including_, _putting aside_, _apart from_.

One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).

Separation, Exclusion = _Besides_, _except_, _save_, _but_.

Examples.--_Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, rica_ = He is good, and, besides that, rich. _Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan_ = Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. _Mi estas anglo, kaj mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra_ = I am an Englishman, and I know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on _ekster_ (par. 259 (11)).

259 (18). Kun = _With_.

Never used as "with" in the sense of the instrument or means by which something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)).

Connection = _With_, _to_.

Examples.--_Li paroladis kun sia amiko_ = He was conversing with his friend. _Li fiancigis kun Fraulino Berta_ = He became engaged to Miss Bertha. _Resti kun leono estas dangere_ = To stay with a lion is dangerous. _Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis_ = He was walking with his friend when I met him.

Manner = _With_, _of_.

Examples.--_Li parolas kun granda sageco_ = He speaks with great wisdom. _Li estas h.o.m.o kun gusto_ = He is a man of (with) taste. _Li estis atendata kun granda senpacienco_ = He was expected with great impatience.

As a root-word or prefix, _Kunigi_ = To connect. _Kunulo_ = A companion. _Kunveni_ = To come together, to a.s.semble.

259 (19). Lau = _According to_.

Manner = _According to_, _from_, _in_, _in accordance with_.

Examples.--_Li agis lau sia opinio_ = He acted according to his own opinion. _Tiu vazo estas farita lau modelo el_ (or, _en_) _nia muzeo_ = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of (in) our museum. _Li parolas lau saga maniero_ = He speaks in a wise manner. _Ili gin faris lauvice_ = They did it in turn. _La pli juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro lau sia boneco_ = The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in (according to) her goodness.

Place and Direction = _In_, _along_.

Examples.--_Ni foriris lau malsamaj direktoj_ (or, _en diversajn flankojn_) = We went away in a different direction (_or_, in different ways). _Aleksandro iris lau tiu ci rivero gis li venis al la palaco_ = Alexander went along this river till he came to the palace.

N.B.--_Lau_ is used in such expressions as:--_Laulonge_ = Lengthways. _Laularge_ = Across, athwart.

259 (20). Malgrau = _Notwithstanding_.

Opposition = _In spite of_, _notwithstanding_, _for_, _despite_.

Examples.--_Li sukcesis malgrau la malhelpoj_ = He succeeded in spite of the hindrances. _Li faris sian eblon, sed malgrau cio, li ne sukcesis_ = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that (notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on _spite_, par. 259 (30)).

259 (21). Per = _By_, _by means of_.

Cause = _By_, _by means of_, _with_, _through_.

Examples.--_Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj audas per la oreloj_ = We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. _Li mortigis lin per glavo_ = He killed him with a sword. _Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that through my brother.

Manner = _With_, _by_, _in_.

Per, used after a pa.s.sive verb, denotes the means or instrument; de denotes the agent.

Examples.--_La domo, kiu estas acet.i.ta de mia patro, estas kovrita per pajla tegmento_ = The house, which was bought by my father, is covered with thatch (a straw roof). _Li tenis lin ce la kolo per ambau manoj_ = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. _Li iris el la urbo per_ (or, _lau_) _flanka vojeto_ = He went out of the town by a by-path. _Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto_ = My uncle did not die (by) a natural death. _Per unu vorto_ (or, _unuvorte_), _la cambro estis tute bela_ = In a word, the room was quite beautiful.

As a prefix or root-word, _per_ is not much used. _Perlabori_ = To acquire by one's labour, to earn. _Peri_ = To mediate, to interpose.

259 (22). Po = _At the rate of._

Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals (see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por.

Distribution = _At the rate of_, _in the proportion of_, _at_.

Examples.--_Mi acetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj_ = I bought four apples at the rate of twopence (each). "_Por du pencoj_" would mean "for twopence" (all four for twopence). _Tiu ci libro havas sesdek pagojn; tial, se mi legos en ciu tago po dek kvin pagoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book has 60 pages; therefore, if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days. _Silko po 5 silingoj por ulno_ = Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).

As a prefix, _Poduone_ = By half, or, by halves. _Pogrande_ = Wholesale.

259 (23). Por = _For_, _for the sake_ (_benefit_) _of_, _in order to_.