6. Scullard, Scullard, Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p Scipio Africa.n.u.s, p. 40; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 133.

7. Polybius, 10.9.3. Polybius, 10.9.3.

8. Ibid., 10.7.5. Mago's location "on this side of the Pillars of Hercules," according to Polybius, is confusing and may have been a copyist's error. Ibid., 10.7.5. Mago's location "on this side of the Pillars of Hercules," according to Polybius, is confusing and may have been a copyist's error.

9. Polybius, 10.8.49. Polybius, 10.8.49.

10. Ibid., 10.11.58. Ibid., 10.11.58.

11. Ibid., 10.1415, 12. Ibid., 10.1415, 12.

12. Polybius's description of the sack of New Carthage is frequently used as a typical example of Roman behavior in such circ.u.mstances, a sequential process beginning with indiscriminate slaughter. Polybius, 10.15.58, says "They do this I think to inspire terror, so that when towns are taken by the Romans one may often see not only the corpses of human beings, but dogs cut in half and the dismembered limbs of other animals.... After this, upon the signal being given, the ma.s.sacre ceased and they began pillaging." Polybius then goes on to describe a very methodical and orderly process by which loot was acc.u.mulated and distributed equally to the legionaries. (10.15.416). Adam Ziolkowski "Urbs Direpta, Or How the Romans Sacked Cities," in John Rich and Graham Shipley, eds., Polybius's description of the sack of New Carthage is frequently used as a typical example of Roman behavior in such circ.u.mstances, a sequential process beginning with indiscriminate slaughter. Polybius, 10.15.58, says "They do this I think to inspire terror, so that when towns are taken by the Romans one may often see not only the corpses of human beings, but dogs cut in half and the dismembered limbs of other animals.... After this, upon the signal being given, the ma.s.sacre ceased and they began pillaging." Polybius then goes on to describe a very methodical and orderly process by which loot was acc.u.mulated and distributed equally to the legionaries. (10.15.416). Adam Ziolkowski "Urbs Direpta, Or How the Romans Sacked Cities," in John Rich and Graham Shipley, eds., War and Society in the Roman World War and Society in the Roman World (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 6991, argues that the process was likely to have been a lot less orderly, with soldiers grabbing any goods they could get, and raping those citizens they didn't kill. (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 6991, argues that the process was likely to have been a lot less orderly, with soldiers grabbing any goods they could get, and raping those citizens they didn't kill.

13. Polybius, 10.17.614. Polybius, 10.17.614.

14. Livy, 26.51.12. Livy, 26.51.12.

15. Polybius, 10.19.16; Livy, 26.50. Polybius, 10.19.16; Livy, 26.50.

16. Polybius, 10.20.14. Polybius, 10.20.14.

17. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 140.

18. Livy, 26.51.10; Polybius 10.35.68. Livy, 26.51.10; Polybius 10.35.68.

19. Polybius, 10.37.45. Polybius, 10.37.45.

20. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 277; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 141.

21. Scullard, Scullard, Scipio Africa.n.u.s Scipio Africa.n.u.s, pp. 734.

22. Ibid., p. 74. Ibid., p. 74.

23. Livy, 27.19.13. Livy, 27.19.13.

24. Ibid., 27.19.812. Ibid., 27.19.812.

25. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 142.

26. Plutarch, Marcellus, 9. Plutarch, Marcellus, 9.

27. Livy, 27.9.1. Livy, 27.9.1.

28. Ibid., 27.10.10. Ibid., 27.10.10.

29. Ibid., 27.12.13. Ibid., 27.12.13.

30. Ibid., 27.1214. Ibid., 27.1214.

31. Ibid., 27.16.1216. Ibid., 27.16.1216.

32. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 143; Livy, 27.16.8.

33. Plutarch, Marcellus, 27; Scullard, Plutarch, Marcellus, 27; Scullard, Roman Politics Roman Politics, pp. 201; Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, pp. 1767.

34. It is probably telling that, despite Fabius Maximus's success at Tarentum, for the year 208 his imperium was not renewed. It is probably telling that, despite Fabius Maximus's success at Tarentum, for the year 208 his imperium was not renewed.

35. See Livy, 27.267, and Polybius, 10.32.16. See Livy, 27.267, and Polybius, 10.32.16.

36. Polybius, 10.32.7. Polybius, 10.32.7.

37. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 179.

38. Ibid., p. 178; Livy, 27.24. Ibid., p. 178; Livy, 27.24.

39. Livy, 27.36.14, 27.39.12, 27.39.511. Livy, 27.36.14, 27.39.12, 27.39.511.

40. Silius Italicus, 15.51321. Silius Italicus, 15.51321.

41. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 180.

42. Livy, 27.3435. Livy, 27.3435.

43. Ibid., 27.39.1114; Lancel, Ibid., 27.39.1114; Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 146; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 239.

44. Livy, 27.46.6; Lazenby, Livy, 27.46.6; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 184.

45. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 183.

46. Livy, 27.43.112. Livy, 27.43.112.

47. Dodge, Dodge, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 5478.

48. Livy, 27.44.9. Livy, 27.44.9.

49. Polybius, 11.1.1. Polybius, 11.1.1.

50. Livy, 27.46.14. Livy, 27.46.14.

51. Ibid., 27.46.7ff. Ibid., 27.46.7ff.

52. Ibid., 27.47.15. Ibid., 27.47.15.

53. Ibid., 27.47.1011; Dodge, Ibid., 27.47.1011; Dodge, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 551.

54. Ovid, Ovid, Fasti Fasti, 6.770.

55. Scullard, Scullard, A History of the Roman World A History of the Roman World, note 6, p. 502; Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius A Historical Commentary on Polybius, vol. 2, p. 270.

56. Livy, 27.48.8. Livy, 27.48.8.

57. Lazenby's explanation Lazenby's explanation (Hannibal's War (Hannibal's War, pp. 18890) of the course of the battle is lucid and logical.

58. Polybius, 11.3.1. Polybius, 11.3.1.

59. Ibid., 11.2.1; Livy, 27.49.34. Ibid., 11.2.1; Livy, 27.49.34.

60. Livy, 27.50.1; Lazenby, "Was Maharbal Right?" p. 40. Livy, 27.50.1; Lazenby, "Was Maharbal Right?" p. 40.

61. Livy, 27.49.56. Livy, 27.49.56.

62. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 191.

63. Polybius, 11.3.6. Polybius, 11.3.6.

64. Livy, 27.51.12. Livy, 27.51.12.

65. Ibid., 28.1.4. Ibid., 28.1.4.

66. Ibid., 28.2.12. Ibid., 28.2.12.

67. Polybius, 11.20.2. Livy (28.12.1314) places the Carthaginian numbers at fifty thousand infantry and forty-five hundred cavalry. Lazenby Polybius, 11.20.2. Livy (28.12.1314) places the Carthaginian numbers at fifty thousand infantry and forty-five hundred cavalry. Lazenby (Hannibal's War, p (Hannibal's War, p. 145) argues convincingly that Scipio's tactic of extending his wings indicates that he was outnumbered considerably in infantry.

68. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 279.

69. Polybius, 11.21.15. Polybius, 11.21.15.

70. Ibid., 11.22.15. Ibid., 11.22.15.

71. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 146.

72. Livy, 28.14.1214, 28.15.3. Livy, 28.14.1214, 28.15.3.

73. Polybius, 11.22.1123.2. Polybius, 11.22.1123.2.

74. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 282.

75. Scullard, Scullard, Scipio Africa.n.u.s Scipio Africa.n.u.s, pp. 945; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, pp The Punic Wars, pp. 2823; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 150.

76. Polybius, 11.24.1. Polybius, 11.24.1.

77. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 283.

78. Livy, 28.15.11; Polybius, 11.24.79. Livy, 28.15.11; Polybius, 11.24.79.

79. Livy, 28.16.6. Livy, 28.16.6.

80. Ibid., 28.16.15. Ibid., 28.16.15.

81. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage Carthage, pp. 3967.

82. Livy, 24.49.16; Lazenby, Livy, 24.49.16; Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 151.

83. Livy, 28.17.1316. An a.n.a.logous situation occurred in A.D. 1914 during the early stages of World War I when German admiral von Spee's squadron, featuring the two cruisers Livy, 28.17.1316. An a.n.a.logous situation occurred in A.D. 1914 during the early stages of World War I when German admiral von Spee's squadron, featuring the two cruisers Scharnhorst Scharnhorst and and Gneisenau Gneisenau, sailed up to the Falkland Islands. There the Germans found anch.o.r.ed in Port Stanley harbor a much more powerful British fleet with two capital ships, the new dreadnought battle cruisers Inflexible Inflexible and and Invincible Invincible. Like in Scipio's case, von Spee's best bet was to close-in this case to fight before his adversaries could raise a head of steam and while they were still sitting ducks. Instead, the German tried to flee and was run down and annihilated.

84. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 152.

85. Livy, 28.22.2ff. Livy, 28.22.2ff.

86. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 284.

87. Lazenby, Lazenby, Hannibal's War, p Hannibal's War, p. 153.

88. Livy, 28.2529; Polybius, 11.25.30. Livy, 28.2529; Polybius, 11.25.30.

89. Livy, 28.36.12. Livy, 28.36.12.

90. Ibid., 28.37.4 Ibid., 28.37.4 91. Ibid., 28.38.5. Ibid., 28.38.5.

92. Ibid., 28.40.342.22. Ibid., 28.40.342.22.

93. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, p. 162.

94. Livy, 28.44.12. Livy, 28.44.12.

95. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, p. 286.

96. Livy, 28.45.8. Livy, 28.45.8.

97. G. de Sanctis, G. de Sanctis, Storia dei Romani Storia dei Romani (Florence, Italy: La Nuova Italia, 1968), vol. 3, 2, p. 645ff; M. Gelzer, (Florence, Italy: La Nuova Italia, 1968), vol. 3, 2, p. 645ff; M. Gelzer, Kleine Schriften Kleine Schriften (Wiesbaden, Germany: F. Steiner, 1964), vol. 3, p. 245ff; cited in Lazenby, (Wiesbaden, Germany: F. Steiner, 1964), vol. 3, p. 245ff; cited in Lazenby, Hannibal's War Hannibal's War, p. 195; Livy, 25.45.13; Appian, Lib 7.

CHAPTER IX: RESURRECTING THE GHOSTS.

1. Livy, 28.46.710; 28.46.13. Livy, 28.46.710; 28.46.13.

2. Scullard Scullard (Scipio Africa.n.u.s (Scipio Africa.n.u.s, fn 81, p. 266) argues that the story should probably be rejected since an almost identical story is told by Plutarch about Agesilaus (9). Nevertheless, it remains true that Livy (59 B.C.A.D. 17) predated Plutarch (A.D. 46120), so unless the story is based on an earlier tradition, it seems possible to accept it.

3. Livy, 29.1.15. Livy, 29.1.15.

4. Ibid., 29.24.12. Ibid., 29.24.12.

5. Ibid., 29.24.14; Lazenby Ibid., 29.24.14; Lazenby (Hannibal's War (Hannibal's War, p. 203) argues that the number is too large, since it was not until the Third Macedonian War, thirty years later, that the Roman army had legions this big. Goldsworthy (The Punic Wars (The Punic Wars, p. 287) counters that this argument "denies the essential flexibility of the Roman military system," and Goldsworthy says that "it was normal to increase the size of legions when faced by an especially dangerous enemy." Certainly, this was the case at Cannae.