[273] Gunther, S. Geschichte der loxodromischen Kurve.

Halle, 1879. (In: Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen und physikalischen Geographie. Halle, 1879. Heft 6.); Grunert, J. A. Loxodromische Trigonometrie. Leipzig, 1869; Hues, R. Tractatus de globis; Markham, Ed. See pp. 127-147.

[274] This was edited by Van Raemdonck and published at St.

Nicolas, 1888.

[275] Ghymmius, op. cit. Caput decimum, Gerardi Mercatoris De mundi creatione ac fabrica; Raynaud, A. Le Continent Austral, hypotheses et decouvertes. Paris, 1893; Wieser, Magalhaes-Stra.s.se, Chap. VI, with references.

[276] See references in n. 75.

[277] Baily, F. The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulug Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley, Hevelius, deduced from the best authorities.

London, 1843. Consult for lists of the several constellations.

[278] See a reference to the sale of Mercator globes. (In: Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Geographie, I Jahrgang, p.

180.)

[279] Blundeville, T. Exercises, pp. 204-243.

[280] Ruscelli, op. cit., Cap. IV.

[281] Fiorini. Sfere terrestre et celeste, p. 144.

[282] Fiorini. Sfere, etc. p. 140.

[283] Mercator, G. Declaratio insigniorum utilitatum. St.

Nicolas, 1888. Ed. by Raemdonck, J. v.

[284] Sacco, B. De italicarum rerum varietate et elegantia.

Papiae, 1565, lib. x, fol. 76.

[285] Thebit, an Arabic astronomer, to whom reference is here made, lived in the latter part of the ninth century. He was chiefly distinguished for his revision of the 'Almagest.'

[286] Ramusio, G. B. Navigationi et Viaggi. Vol. III.

[287] Hieronymi Fracastorii Veronensis opera omnia. The biography is thought to have been written by Adamo Fumano.

[288] See above, p. 100.

[289] Ramusio, op. cit., Vol. I.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Portuguese Arms]

Chapter VIII

Globes and Globe Makers of the Third Quarter of the Sixteenth Century

Revival of interest in globe making in Italy.-Francois De Mongenet of France and the reprint of his globe maps in Italy.-Gore map of Antonius Floria.n.u.s.-Globe records left by Alessandro Piccolomini.-Ruscelli's directions for globe construction.-Reference to the work of Sanuto and Gonzaga.-Armillary sphere of Volpaja.-Excellent workmanship in the celestial-terrestrial globe of Christian Heyden.-Metal globes of Johannes Praetorius.-Vasari's reference to the work of Ign.a.z.io Danti.-The iron globe of Francis...o...b...s.so.-Armillary sphere of Giovanni Barrocci.-The work of Hieronymo de Boncompagni.-Emanuele Filiberto.-Anonymous globe of 1575.-Laurentian armillary spheres.-Small globes of the Biblioteca Nationale of Florence.-Mario Cartaro.

Among those interested in map and globe making, in the third quarter of the sixteenth century, none seems to have surpa.s.sed the Italians. In the art of map engraving they attained to a high degree of merit, and much of the finest work of the middle of the century is the product of the peninsula. With few exceptions it is the Italians who hold the field in this line of scientific activity. There can undoubtedly be traced here the influence of Mercator, but there appear to have been not a few who worked on what might be called independent lines. The interest of ill.u.s.trious personages in the construction and the possession of globes prompted activity in this field. While the number extant, of those manufactured in this period, is not large, there are not a few references in letters and in scientific works a.s.suring us of the construction of many which cannot now be traced.

We may call attention first to Francois De Mongenet, who appears to have been a native of Franche-Comte and well known in his day as a globe maker. He was, however, quite forgotten until a few years since, when a copy each of his terrestrial and celestial globe gores was purchased by the antiquarian Rosenthal of Munich,[290] and sold to Mr. Kalbfleisch of New York, from whose collection they pa.s.sed into the possession of the New York Public Library. Since this discovery of De Mongenet's interesting work, a number of copies of the same or of subsequent editions have come to light, both of the terrestrial and of the celestial globe, some of which copies are mounted, some remain unmounted, some are of his first edition of the year 1552, others are of the second edition, undated, somewhat altered, and printed in Italy. All of his globes are of small size, having each a diameter of about 85 mm.

De Mongenet was born at Vesoul in France, and in the university of his town he studied medicine, mathematics, and probably geography or cosmography. There seems to be but little known concerning the family to which Francois belonged, but such details as it was possible to gather Marcel brought together in a carefully prepared paper.[291] This author thinks it probable that he could be counted among the circle of learned and distinguished men whom Granvella was accustomed to bring together in his palace at Besancon on frequent occasions during the five years he pa.s.sed in that city after he had given over his administration of the Netherlands. If true, there may here be found a connecting link between De Mongenet and Mercator, remembering that the latter dedicated his globe of 1541 to the father of the distinguished cardinal statesman.[292] The suggestion of Mercator's influence on De Mongenet appears quite evident on a comparison of the outlines of their globe maps.

The Lenox copy of the terrestrial gores (Fig. 63) is dedicated to "Eximio Viro: D:I:P:A Monte Maiore," while the celestial gores (Fig. 64) carry the dedication "Eximio Viro D. Gabrieli a Tiesbach." Marcel is of the opinion that the dedication of the first to "Monte Maiore" refers to a prelate of the ill.u.s.trious house of Granmont, whose name in the sixteenth century was often spelled Grandmont, and that Gabrieli Tiesbach (Diesbach) belonged to a family of Besancon, originally from Freiburg, and that he was a knight of St. George. The author and date legend of the first reads "Faciebat Franciscus De Mongenet anno 1552,"

while that of the second reads "Elaborabat Franciscus De Mongenet. Anno 1552." The gores of each map as printed measure from pole to pole 13.7 cm., the length of the equatorial line being 27.5 cm. Around each set there is a narrow black border. A zodiacal circle is likewise printed on the first sheet 5 cm. in width, and of sufficient length to encompa.s.s the gores when mounted, being divided into twelve parts, in which, in regular order, are the figures of the twelve zodiacal constellations.

With but few exceptions the several inscriptions are in small capitals, and are well executed.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 63. Terrestrial Globe Gores of Francois de Mongenet, 1552.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 64. Celestial Globe Gores of Francois de Mongenet, 1552.]

The draughtsmanship which the terrestrial map exhibits in all parts, as well as that exhibited by the celestial, displays skill of very considerable merit. The general outline of the New World's coasts is quite as well done as on any of the maps of the day, the Pacific coast line of North America sweeping in a great curve northward and northeastward, while a great broad stretch of ocean separates the continent from Asia. In North America we find only the inscriptions "Hispania maior" and "baccalea." South America bears the inscription "America," so extended as to cover the continent. The names of geographical localities are comparatively few, the size of the globe making it impossible to insert many details.

On a second pair of De Mongenet's globes, referred to by Marcel, the dedications and inscriptions differ slightly from those given above.

On the terrestrial gores we find "Ill.u.s.tr. Ac Rever. D. D. CL. A. Bauma Arch. Bis.," and the signature, "Elaborabat Francis. De Mongenet. V. E.

V." On the celestial gores we read "Ill.u.s.tr. Ac Rever. D. D. CL. A.

Bauma Arch. Bis. E. V.," the signature "Elaborabat Franciscus De.

Mongenet. V.," and the privilege "c.u.m privilegio Pont. Max. Sqe. Ven."

Citing again Marcel's opinion, the Claudio de la Baume referred to was Archbishop of Besancon, and the letter "V" placed after the name of the globe maker doubtless refers to Vesoul, his birthplace; the letters "E.

V." may stand either for "Excusum Venetiis," indicating the city in which the work was done, or for "Enea Vico," the name of the actual engraver of the gores, who is known as having been at that time an engraver of medals, being now especially remembered for his medals of the first twelve Emperors of Rome.[293]

The gores of the first edition were printed from engraved wooden blocks; the second were printed from engraved copper plates which exhibit a very superior workmanship, and it is to be noted that many more names appear on the terrestrial gores than on those of the first edition. Ruscelli, in his edition of Ptolemy of 1561, makes mention of "a little globe, published lately by Francesco Mongonetto Borgonone,"[294] which allusion would seem to indicate a reference to the second edition and to its issue near 1561. Although this second edition contains more names than does the first, it gives little indication that the author had knowledge of discoveries subsequent to the first edition. Like Mercator he represents North America as separated from Asia, as before noted, by a wide expanse of ocean, to which no name has been given, and like Mercator he lays down a large austral continent. His globes could hardly have been received with as much favor as were those by his Flemish contemporary, since they were so small as to appear like mere playthings.

Of the first edition, other than those gores to be found in the New York Public Library, a set of the terrestrial and the celestial gores is in the British Museum, and of the terrestrial in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nurnberg.

Of the second edition, copies of the unmounted gores may be found in the Bibliotheque Nationale, in the British Museum, in the private library of Prince Trivulzio of Milan. A mounted pair of the second edition may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome (Fig. 65), and in addition a second example of the celestial globe, which is described as having excellent mountings of bra.s.s, so arranged as to make possible a revolution of the globe both on an equatorial axis and an axis of the ecliptic. Its horizon circle is supported by two bra.s.s semicircles, the whole resting on four wooden columns of modern construction, and these in turn resting on representations of lion's paws in bronze. An example of the mounted terrestrial globe is said to belong to the collection of Sr. Bazolle of Belluno, which example once belonged to the Counts of Pilloni.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 65. Globes of Francois de Mongenet, 1560, and of Gian Francesco Costa, 1784.]

Attention has been called to the peculiar gore map of Santa Cruz,[295]

and to the fact that his method of construction seems not to have won favor. We, however, find among the map makers of Italy, in the period of which we are now speaking, one Antonius Floria.n.u.s,[296] who, if not copying the plan of Santa Cruz, followed closely his scheme. His map, of which numerous copies are known (Fig. 66), seems to have been prepared for mounting on a ball, although no such mounted example can now be located. With the poles as centers, and with a radius equal to one quarter of the circ.u.mference of the sphere he proposed to construct, he drew his equatorial circles, which thus gave him two hemispheres, respectively, a northern and a southern; in the same manner he drew his parallels at intervals of ten degrees, using for each the common polar centers. In each of the hemispheres he drew thirty-six sectors, each sector being made to represent ten degrees of longitude, and they were so shaped mathematically that their combined width at the equator would equal the circ.u.mference of the sphere of which the selected radius, referred to above, represented one quarter of that circ.u.mference. When prepared for mounting, the vacant s.p.a.ce between the several sectors could be cut away, leaving the thirty-six engraved sectors, on which the world map appeared, to be pasted on the surface of the sphere. The scheme which Floria.n.u.s devised was practically that employed by Werner in his equivalent cordiform projection, and likewise that of Finaeus and Mercator.[297]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 66. Globe Gores of Antonius Floria.n.u.s, 1555.]

It was the eighteenth of January, in the year 1555, that Floria.n.u.s obtained a copyright from the Venetian senate for his map,[298] but it is probable he died before the map appeared in print, since there is evidence of incompleteness in the known copies. In the s.p.a.ces, with artistic borders, which had been designed for inscriptions, nothing appears, and in but two of the four cartouches evidently intended for portraits do such portraits appear, viz., that of Ptolemy and of the author himself.

The geographical outlines of the map closely resemble those of De Mongenet, as well as those of Mercator. North America is given practically the same shape. The great expanse of ocean lying between this continent and Asia is called "Ocea.n.u.s orientalis indicus," and midway between the continents, in lat.i.tude 45 degrees, is "Sipango."

North America is called "Americae," also "Hispania maior," while South America is likewise called "Americae." The great austral land is represented but is unnamed. The whole is indeed a fine example of Italian copper engraving.

Numerous copies of Floria.n.u.s' map are known. It usually appears in the Lafreri collection, and Fiorini notes that copies may be found in the Archivo di State of Turin, in the Marciana of Venice, in the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele of Rome, in the Biblioteca Comunale of Treviso, in the private library of Professor Marinelli of Florence, in the British Museum, in the private library of Nordenskiold. To the above may be added the New York Public Library, the Library of Congress, and the Harvard Library, which likewise possess copies.

Among the numerous references appearing here and there in the literature of Italy, a.s.suring us of the interest in that country in globe construction, reference may be made to the record left by Alessandro Piccolomini, a native of Siena, and author of a work on the extent of the land and water,[299] who, in the preparation of his work, made extensive study of the records to be found in plane maps and globes. In his work published in Venice in the year 1558, though his dedication to M. Jacomo Cocco, Archbishop of Corfu, reads August 28, 1557, "Della mia casa di S. Giorgio, di Siena, il di XXVIII di Agosto MDLVII," he tells of several globes which it had been his privilege to examine. "I have zealously examined geographical maps, both plain and spherical, and especially those which are reputed to be most faithful, for example, among others, a solid terrestrial sphere shown me by Cardinal Viseo.[300] Another I saw at the home of the Cardinal of Carpi,[301]

exhibiting mountain elevations in a new and excellent manner, and still another much larger kept at present at the home of Cardinal of Urbino.[302] There is also a globe having a diameter of about an arm's length, which I saw two years since at the home of the Archbishop of Corfu, and still another I have recently seen about the same size or about one arm's length in diameter, which had been presented to His Excellency the Duke of Paliano." He adds that he had made careful geographical computations in his investigations, employing the last-named sphere. As to his method of procedure in his studies he states that "first of all having placed before me a solid sphere of about three feet in diameter, the most exact I have been able to find among those referred to above, namely, the one with the equinoctial circle and with the meridian pa.s.sing through the Canaries of the Fortunate islands where Ptolemy located the prime meridian, I have divided it into four equal parts-two northern and two southern." It seems probable that the globe here referred to is that which he stated belonged to the Cardinal of Urbino, and which he noted was larger than was that belonging to Cardinal Viseo or to the Cardinal of Carpi, the diameter of which he stated to be an arm's length. Piccolomini gives us no intimation as to the authorship of the five globes he says he examined. He adds an interesting word concerning the character of the globe of Cardinal Carpi, seeming to imply that it was not a printed globe, since it represented "mountain elevations." We perhaps are justified, says Fiorini, in concluding from this and other evidence that the maps on these globes were not printed, since they were of very large size, and we know that Mercator's globes 41 cm. in diameter were then considered to have special value because larger than others constructed in a similar manner, that is, having their maps engraved or printed.

We may here again refer to Ruscelli's directions for globe construction,[303] to which he added certain suggestions for globe adornment, that they might appeal to princes and n.o.bles. "Globes of copper, bronze or silver," he says, "such as princes would desire to possess, to be fine, durable and rare should be plated, that is, the circles, the letters, the outlines of the countries should first be engraved and then there should be added gold or silver plating." "A generous prince," he adds, "could have them made in Asimino or Tausia style, as they say, that is, have the copper surface engraved, and the grooves filled with silver or gold thread. By forcing this in the work can be made very strong." He states in one of his chapters that globes so constructed are usually small, but he adds that he had seen globes three and a half palms in diameter, such as that sent to him by Zurelio Porcelaga. Of this last he speaks in words of praise, pa.s.sing on to refer to two large ones then under construction in Venice. "One of these," he says, "is of copper being made by Giulio Sanuto, which it is hoped will be one of the best as one of the most beautiful of any constructed up to the present time." The implication seems to be, from the words of Ruscelli, that at least some part of the printing was to be made directly on the surface of the sphere. Further information given by Ruscelli touching Sanuto and Gonzaga in this connection is here of interest. He states "besides the fact that Giulio Sanuto is very skilful in drawing and engraving, especially in geographical maps of the world and its parts, he is, in this task, being aided by Livio Sanuto,[304] a Venetian n.o.bleman, his brother, among whose many good qualities he possesses to a degree above the ordinary, are his attainments in the profession of geography. Both are giving so much attention to this globe that it is expected, in both matter and form, it will be perfect.