3. The river flats here meant are, for the most part, large fields partaking of the nature of common; that is, certain farmers and others have the privilege of grazing during the autumn; but it is _aimed up_ early in spring, for the purpose of taking a crop of hay. Such lands would be impoverished by such constant haymaking; but the winter floods leave behind them a deposit of silt and fluviatile materials, and perhaps beside act as a solvent; so that their fertility is wonderfully maintained.

Many such wide stretches of meadow occur on the banks of the Severn, as in the neighbourhood of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Worcester, &c., where they get the name of _Ham_. It is much to be regretted that these hams are not made the most of, for the same reason as applies with respect to common, for the want of some efficient officer to direct improvements; and so from the water here and there stagnating good herbage is ruined, and from the floods not being controllable, even hay is lost with the summer freshets. But where such land is vested in single enterprising proprietors, not only is drainage insured, but embankments are made to keep out the waters when not required, as so much met with on the banks of the Thames; and such fields are at once an evidence of the capabilities of river flats, and the great importance of individual enterprise.

4. The last case approaches very nearly to that of _irrigated_ meadows; but these latter are mostly situate on small streams, which can be directed to flow through, not over them, at any time: they offer a most important means of augmenting our pasturage in certain districts, and will therefore receive a chapter to themselves.

5. Permanent gra.s.s enclosures are of very varied sizes, from hundreds of acres, forming perhaps a park, to the small meadow of the homestead; they may be seldom or never used for haymaking, but most of them are aimed up for hay once, twice, or thrice in four or five years. These form the greater part of the gra.s.s-lands of our country, and are indeed nowhere greener or more productive than in the British Isles; still, as we are an advocate for their cultivation-which, if it does not quite realize the position of making two blades of gra.s.s grow where one grew before, may at least do much in this direction-we shall reserve further remarks upon this subject until we have particularly a.n.a.lyzed the contents of a meadow.

6. As shifting crops, gra.s.ses, and other fodder plants may be made exceedingly useful, these may therefore well occupy a chapter to themselves.

CHAPTER X.

ON THE SPECIES OF MEADOW-GRa.s.sES.

Although we possess more than a hundred species of native gra.s.ses, we shall rarely find a fourth of them even in a wide range of meadows; and if we do so, it is rather an argument against than in favour of the quality of their herbage, as, so few are the best gra.s.ses in number, that it is almost a law for the best meadows to contain the fewest species of true gra.s.ses.

If, then, the good gra.s.ses be so few, whatever is not of these must be inferior, and, indeed, so bad are some gra.s.ses that they can only be considered as weeds. These weed-like forms are known to the farmer from his observing that the cattle usually refuse to eat them, and hence he has got to call them "sour gra.s.ses,"-a term which, though perhaps meant to convey the idea that such are objectionable in flavour, yet it is oftener that they are refused from their want of flavour, or from some mechanical objection arising from their roughness of growth, some having sharp serrated cutting edges to their leaves, whilst the spicular awns, so conspicuous in the beard of barley, cause great irritation by sticking beneath the tongue and in the gums. Of these, the first are objectionable for pasture, the last for hay, and should, therefore, not be found in really good meadows.

The figures and descriptions which follow are given in ill.u.s.tration of some of the more usual meadow species, which, though not fully or botanically described, will yet aid the practical farmer in estimating the species, and their value and significance, which he will commonly find in his fields.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 13._ The Meadow Foxtail.]

The Meadow Foxtail (_Alopecurus pratensis_, fig. 13) is an early species of the _spicate_ form-_i.e._, the flowers grow close together, into a more or less dense head. It yields a great quant.i.ty of herbage, especially in moist situations; and is particularly adapted for the irrigated meadow. It should be distinguished from the _A. geniculatus_ (Kneeling Foxtail), whose spike is only about half the length and size, as this is particularly a water species, so that if found when a meadow is dry, it is yet an evidence that water must have lain where it occurs for a considerable period of the year. Also from the _A. agrestis_ (Slender Foxtail), which has a longer and thinner spike, as this latter is a weed in poor hungry clays, which is useless except as serving to indicate that the land wants perhaps both drainage and manure. Here, then, our first genus presents us with species indicating the varied conditions of rich meadow, wet places, and poor arable; and it is this variableness in adaptability that makes the gra.s.ses such important indicators of the nature and condition of soils.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 14._ The Catstail Gra.s.s.]

The Catstail Gra.s.s (_Phleum pratense_, fig. 14) in general form is not unlike the preceding, but it is much rougher in all its parts, and is one of the latest instead of one of our earliest species. Its name of catstail is due to its rough flowers, an enlarged drawing of one of which is given at _a_. It has also got the name of Timothy Gra.s.s, from one Mr. Timothy Hanson, an American, to whom, probably, is owing its first introduction as a "self-crop," large fields of this useful species, mostly by itself, being grown in Canada and the States as a fodder plant. It is very useful in the meadow, as supplying a late crop of stems and leaves; greatly augmenting the amount of herbage in some of the colder though not poor districts.

We have never seen this gra.s.s used as a self-crop in England, but we are convinced that on some of the rich alluvial flats, as in the lands reclaimed from the Severn, and warp soils in general, it would yield a large bulk of good feeding matter, which, though somewhat rough, would yet mix well with clovers, &c., in chaff-cutting.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 15._ The Sweet Vernal Gra.s.s.]

The Sweet Vernal Gra.s.s (_Anthoxanthum odoratum_, fig. 15) is a very early species, with a somewhat lax spike of flowers, which usually become of a bright straw-colour by the time the hayfield is ripe for the scythe. It does not yield much bulk, but its grateful bitter when fresh, and the peculiarly sweet hayfield odour which it yields on drying, would seem to make this gra.s.s of importance, from the flavour which it imparts to the produce of the field; indeed so much so, that much of the value of natural meadow hay over that of artificial pasture may be traced to the presence of this gra.s.s.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 16._ The Crested Dogstail.]

The Crested Dogstail (_Cynosurus cristatus_, fig. 16) has its florets arranged in front of a series of abortive branches, as represented at _a_, enlarged. It has a very slender stem, which is hard and wiry when ripe-a condition which it so universally attains, even in spite of constant depasturing, that we never recommend its use in mixtures for permanent pasture, as its stems are particularly innutritious, and its herbage is so small as to be of little value. It never prevails much in our best pastures.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 17._ Rye Gra.s.s, or Ray Gra.s.s.]

Rye Gra.s.s, or Ray Gra.s.s (_Lolium perenne_, fig. 17), has no connection with the Cereal Rye. It is one of our commonest and most useful species, both as a plant for the natural meadow or for arable culture, especially in mixture with clovers, which has the name of "seeds." It yields good bulk for the rick, and will so readily grow after cutting or close depasturing that it commonly affords the greater part of the herbage of a pasture. From being so valuable, its seed has been much cultivated; and as it has a tendency to form more or less permanent varieties, so we find in the market several different sorts; as "Pacey's, Ruck's, Russell's, Stickney's, Rye Gra.s.s," &c. It should always form part in any mixture in laying down permanent pasture, in which case it should be distinguished from the _Lolium Italic.u.m_, the florets and seeds of which are awned-pointed, as at _a_. This latter is useful as an annual self-crop, but seedsmen too often mix it in permanent-pasture collections, for the reason that it grows faster, and so makes a show the first year, and so satisfies the customer; but it soon dies out, while its large growth has kept under the more enduring forms. _b_ represents a bunch of the tumid flowers of the _Lolium temulentum_ (Drunken Darnel), once a pest in cornfields, but now, fortunately, of rare occurrence, if we are to believe the tales told of its so-called poisonous seeds.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 18._ The c.o.c.ksfoot.]

The c.o.c.ksfoot (_Dactylis glomerata_, fig. 18), though a large and somewhat coa.r.s.e gra.s.s, is by no means inferior in quality, its hay being highly nutritious, whilst its cut or cropped herbage is so quick of growth that it is capable of yielding a great deal of keep. It sends its root deep into the soil, so that it can grow well in poor land if dry; but it never flourishes in very wet situations. It is constant in good meadows, unless when they are always depastured, as there the constant treading greatly interferes with it: it is, therefore, by no means so abundant in sheep pastures; whence has arisen the idea with some farmers that "too much sheep-grazing wears out the richer gra.s.ses."

We should always recommend c.o.c.ksfoot as a part of mixtures for permanent pasture, taking care to well roll the meadow once or twice a year-a process of great importance-to keep the turf in an even pile, and so prevent that growing of large cl.u.s.ters or ha.s.socks of one sort, a method of growth to which the c.o.c.ksfoot is somewhat p.r.o.ne.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 19._ The Rough-stalked Meadow Gra.s.s.]

The Rough-stalked Meadow Gra.s.s (_Poa trivialis_, fig. 19) is a common species in moist meadows, where it often forms a considerable portion of the herbage: it is distinguished from the smooth-stalked by the long-pointed tongue (_ligule_) to the leaves (_a_), and a stem which is somewhat rough to the feel, especially when drawn downwards through the fingers. This gra.s.s yields a quant.i.ty of herbage, but our experience leads us to conclude that it does not possess quite so good a quality as Sinclair and authors who have copied from him would lead us to suppose, as we have found it wanting in feeding qualities, or what the farmer calls "proof." It usually forms a large part of the hay of the irrigated meadow, which, though often large in quant.i.ty, is yet not equal to that of ordinary good meadows in feeding properties.

The Smooth-stalked Meadow Gra.s.s (_Poa pratensis_), distinguished by a blunt ligule (_b_) and smooth stem, is as abundant in dry situations as the former is in damp ones. We confess to a great partiality for this gra.s.s, notwithstanding that authors speak slightingly of its value; but the truth is, that it varies with soil and situation, it being a species which, when growing on a wild moor, is poor in both quant.i.ty and quality. But we know of no better sign of the improvement of a bad meadow than the increase of this gra.s.s, and its putting on, as it will do under such circ.u.mstances, of its richest green tint.

_Poa nemoralis_ (Wood Meadow Gra.s.s) is a more slender form, whose wild _habitat_ is in woods and shady places, especially on calcareous soils.

This points it out as a useful gra.s.s for wood-glades and positions beneath trees, in which it may very properly be employed.

In laying down permanent pastures we should, then, employ these three poas as follows:-

_Poa trivialis_, for low, damp situations and irrigated meadows.

_Poa pratensis_, for sound dry pastures and uplands.

_Poa nemoralis_, for rides between woods, wood-glades, and shady places.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 20._ Meadow Fescue.]

Meadow Fescue (_Festuca pratensis_, fig. 20) may be taken as the type of the broad-leaved fescues. It is a common and good succulent gra.s.s in rich meadows, and should always be employed in seed mixtures for such situations, A variety, botanically known as _F. loliacea_, is unbranched, like the lolium or rye gra.s.s. The position of this is on rich river flats: we have seen it on the banks of the Isis at Oxford, forming a large part of most excellent herbage.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 21._ The Tall Fescue.]

The Tall Fescue (_Festuca elatior_, fig. 21) is a larger and coa.r.s.er form of _F. pratensis_, as seed of the latter will become the former by being sown on some stiff sandy clays. It occurs abundantly on the stiff alluvial deposits of our estuaries and river flats. It is an exceedingly coa.r.s.e gra.s.s, with a tendency to grow in large separate bunches; and hence its presence is destructive to good pastures: it may, however, be encouraged as a rough growth in its indicated _habitats_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 22._ Sheep's Fescue.]

Sheep's Fescue (_Festuca ovina_, fig. 22) may be taken as the type of the small-leaved fescues. It is a native of our downs, and forms a large proportion of the sweet down sheep-pastures. It is known by its fine leaves, which come up immediately after the closest feeding; and if its quant.i.ty equalled its quality, it would be even more valuable than it is. A larger form, the Hard Fescue (_F. duriuscula_), is common to sound meadows and the hill valleys. This has much the same properties as the former, but it is taller, with longer and broader leaves. This should always be encouraged, and in laying down gra.s.s for permanent pasture, it should be plentifully added to the seed mixture.

The Downy Wild Oat (_Avena p.u.b.escens_, fig. 23) is a common gra.s.s on thin calcareous soils. As it is very light in structure, and yields but little gra.s.s, it is not worth much as a first-rate pasture plant,-and indeed it would scarcely prefer to grow on them.

There is, however, a smaller-flowered species, the _Avena flavescens_ (Yellow Oat-gra.s.s), which is better. It, too, occurs on chalky soils; while the _Avena pratensis_ (Meadow Oat-gra.s.s) is found too frequently in poor clays or on starved moors, in which its rigid leaves and harsh structure render it little, if any, better than a weed.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 23._ The Downy Wild Oat.]

One of the most interesting species of the genus is the _Avena fatua_ (Wild Oat), well known as a weed in stiff arable soils. This is the parent of the crop oats in cultivation, and there is reason to know that by degeneracy the crop oat in some districts leaves behind a pest of wild oats.[2]

[2] See "Natural History of British Meadow and Pasture Gra.s.ses," by the Author.

The Oat-like Gra.s.s (_Arrhenatherum avenaceum_, fig. 24), though a tall, succulent-looking species, is still too common in poor soils, as its herbage is bitter and nauseous, and not liked by cattle; and hay from it is always inferior in quality. It is sometimes recommended by seedsmen, and usually put with their mixtures; but we should at all times refuse it.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 24._ The Oat-like Gra.s.s.]

There is a peculiar form of this which occasionally occurs in sandy districts, called _A. avenaceum_, variety _bulbosum_ (Onion Couch), the trivial name of which has been given from the fact that its nodes thicken below the soil, and present the appearance of small races of onions. This pest is got out of the land by harrowing and hand-picking; but as every bulb grows like joints of real couch, it is very difficult to entirely eradicate it.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 25._ The Soft Brome, or Lop Gra.s.ses.]

The Soft Brome, or Lop Gra.s.ses (_Bromus mollis_, fig. 25), and its congeners, is an annual gra.s.s, and therefore very objectionable, whether in the meadow or in "seeds," to both of which, when poor and neglected, it becomes attached. In both positions it is sometimes mixed with a kind that droops pretty considerably to one side; from which it has got the name of "lop." From the meadow it is soon got rid of by manuring and depasturing; haymaking, though it cuts off the main stem, only encourages smaller ones to spring up late, and so the seed is sown.