In "seeds" it is frequently mixed with rye-gra.s.s seed, as it too often occurs that a patch of rye-gra.s.s with much lop is seeded, as the most profitable way to deal with it, as its seeds are heavy and large, and therefore tell well, either by weight or measure. Our enlarged drawing of a seed with its envelopes is given to contrast with rye-gra.s.s seed, which is narrower and more pointed.

Within the last few years a species of brome gra.s.s, which was formerly very rare, has become a common weed: we mean the _B. arvensis_, Corn Brome-gra.s.s,-a species with smaller and more numerous heads of flowers than the one just described. This has spread with the growth of foreign seeds, and so suddenly has it appeared in some places as to cause farmers to come to the conclusion that poor cultivation has made the land spontaneously bring forth "a nasty sort of wild oat," while others have even concluded that a cereal crop had been transformed into this gra.s.s.

The _Bromus erectus_ (Upright Brome Gra.s.s) is very constant to poor calcareous soils. This is a perennial species, but very poor indeed in feeding qualities; however, it looks green in park-glades, and if kept down by rough stock, it may then be made useful.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 26._ The Bent Gra.s.s.]

The Bent Gra.s.s (_Agrostis stolonifera_, fig. 26) is probably only a variety of the common marsh species, _A. alba_. Under the name of Fiorin Gra.s.s, this plant has been much extolled for the meadow; but our experience shows it to vary in value according to the nature of the position in which it is placed: as thus, in an irrigated meadow it sends up a large quant.i.ty of quite rich pasturage, whilst in poor or dry districts its herbage is hard and harsh, and not at all relished by cattle or sheep.

The form we have figured is more particularly agrarian where its creeping underground stem forms a kind of mischievous couch, and this, united with a tangled growth derived from shoots rooting above the ground, renders this one of the most pernicious weeds, especially in thin soils, on calcareous, brashy, or stony soils.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 27._ Woolly Soft Gra.s.s.]

Woolly Soft Gra.s.s (_Holcus lanatus_, fig. 27), though exceedingly pretty from its contrast in colour and form with its congeners, is still so worthless in point of feeding properties as to be little, if any, better than a weed. It is too abundant in some moist meadows; and where it forms a very large portion of the herbage, it speaks of poverty as well as wet, and would lead to the inference that a little draining, less frequent haymaking, and liberal doses of manure, would have a most decidedly beneficial effect.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 28._ Quaking Gra.s.ses.]

Quaking Gra.s.ses (_Briza media_, fig. 28, _B. minor_, _a_, and _B.

maxima_, _b_), though certainly amongst our pretty species, are all useless to the farmer. The common species is well known in all wet or poor clay meadows, and where very abundant we should usually make our calculations for something less than a ton of hay to the acre, and this would generally be late, and offer little _aftermath_. Like the preceding, its indications are want of draining, manure, and depasturing. If after the drains begin to act, sheep be folded upon a quaking-gra.s.s meadow, and fed with turnips, hay, pease, or cake, it will soon be eradicated. _a_, the smaller species, is an annual, and is only noticed here by way of distinction: its smaller and broader bunches of whitish, not purple, flowers, and rectilinear branches, will distinguish it from the common form. It is comparatively rare; but we have had some fine specimens communicated by H. C. Watson, Esq., from Thames Ditton.

_b_ is a garden specimen, remarkable for its larger flower bunches.

The Hair Gra.s.s (_Aira caespitosa_, fig. 29) is commonly called ha.s.sock, or tussac gra.s.s, or bull-pates-names which its ma.s.sive bunches of root-leaves clearly indicate the meaning of. Its leaves are so rough, with serrated edges, that cattle mostly refuse it, unless when very young. This gra.s.s is a never-failing indicator of wet,-so much so, that if a meadow be drained in which it abounds, the action of the drains is clearly indicated by its more or less gradual dying out. The quickest way, then, to subdue this large, coa.r.s.e weed-gra.s.s is to drain, and then fold sheep upon the drying meadow: these animals tread the tussac gra.s.s into manure, which goes to feed the better species. By this means, not only this, but other rough or "sour" gra.s.ses are more quickly and more certainly removed than by spudding them out; and this leads us to remark, in concluding this chapter, that in the meadow there will usually be found growing together two sets of gra.s.ses, which may be designated as follows:-

_a._ Gra.s.ses more or less nutritious-sweet.

_b._ Gra.s.ses more or less innutritious-sour.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 29._ The Hair Tussac Gra.s.s.]

In a good meadow, the section _a_ maintain the ascendancy, and so keep under those of _b_. In a bad meadow, the section _b_ will be master, and so tyrannize over what would be better.

Perfect cultivation, then, of a meadow-for meadows should be cultivated-whilst it encourages the growth of _good_ herbage, equally discourages the progress of the _bad_.

CHAPTER XI.

ON MEADOW PLANTS OTHER THAN GRa.s.sES.

With the gra.s.s of the field will usually be found a large proportion of plants of a very varied, variable, and different kind. Of these, many are useful as augmenting the ma.s.s, and even improving the quality of a pasture; whilst, as others are altogether objectionable, we shall presently notice them under the head of "Meadow Weeds."

Of the more useful adjuncts of the meadow we may tabulate the following:-

+----+------------------------+--------------------------+

No.

Trivial Names.

Botanical Names.

+----+------------------------+--------------------------+

1

Red clover

Trifolium pratense.

2

Zigzag clover

medium.

3

White or Dutch clover

repens.

4

Birdsfoot

Lotus corniculatus.

5

Yellow vetchling

Lathyrus pratensis.

6

Purple vetchling

pal.u.s.tris.

7

Saintfoin

On.o.brychis sativa.

8

Burnet

Sanguisorba officinalis.

9

False burnet

Poterium Sanguisorba.

10

Tormentil

Tormentilla officinalis.

11

Yarrow

Achillaea millefolia.

12

Agrimony

Agrimonia Eupatoria.

13

Plantain

Plantago lanceolata.

Some of the smaller Compositae.

Ditto Umbelliferae.

+----+---------------------------------------------------+

Of these, which are arranged pretty nearly in their order of merit, the clovers are by far the most important. These, as meadow plants, will usually be found under the following circ.u.mstances:-

No. 1. Plentiful in good, rich, sound meadows.

2. Frequent in meadows on light sandy soils.

3. On thin but good soil, upland meadows.

The clovers, and indeed the clover allies, _Papilionaceae_, as a whole, are partial to lime,-so much so, that a dressing of this mineral to some fields in which clovers are scarcely represented will very quickly cause an accelerated growth of them; hence road dirt, when made from calcareous stones, as are the _oolitic_ and mountain limestones, affords a good vehicle for the admixture of manures or ameliorators, such as guano, burnt ashes, soot, nitrate of soda, &c.

The following remarks upon these three clovers are from a paper by the author in the _Bath and West of England Agricultural Journal_, vol. x., part 2:-

1. _Trifolium pratense_-Meadow or Broad-leaved Clover-in its wild state is too well known to need any lengthened description. A careful examination of field specimens will show that even in the wild state this plant is liable to run into numberless variations; thus, we may have the leaflets of one plant broad and almost obcordate at the extremity, whilst others will be more or less ovate and lancet-shaped. In some we may see dense heads of purple flowers, varying in shade until almost white, whilst less dense heads of flowers and general variations in height, size, and luxuriance of the whole plant, are all circ.u.mstances in the natural history of this species in the wild state, which will prepare us duly to understand the nature of the many forms of the plant which are found in cultivation. Of these we have, besides others, English, French, American, and Dutch sorts, which differ in such minor details as a greater or less hairiness, or variations in the colour and size of the flowers, leaves, _&c._ The most important point connected with the broad-leaved clover is its permanency; some sorts scarcely maintaining a plant for two years, whilst others are said to be more or less perennial. This, however, is a matter which we conceive depends more upon the soil and the kind of cultivation than upon the sort; for although all seedsmen supply two sorts, namely, _Trifolium pratense_ and _T. pratense perenne_, yet they run so much the one into the other, that it is oftentimes exceedingly difficult to distinguish them. If, therefore, a farmer wants a good strain of broad clover, he should purchase his seed from seedsmen possessing judgment and character; for experience has taught us that a seed which may be all that is required in one district may result in next to a failure in another. Thus, clover-seed from the warmer parts of England does not succeed well when sown in cold, exposed positions; but that from the latter is improved on transmission to the former, whilst good changes are effected by the occasional use of foreign seed.

The sort known in the market as _T. pratense perenne_ is probably intermediate between the wild species _T. pratense_ and _T.

medium_. Our own experiments have shown that, on cultivating _T.

medium_, which is a sand-lover, in strong land, in three years it has been very difficult to distinguish it from some of the varieties of _T. pratense_. We incline, therefore, to the opinion that as the _T. medium_ holds to sandy soils in the wild state, its seed was brought into cultivation with a view to light-soil cropping; and from this source has probably been derived the so-called _T. pratense perenne_, which variety is certainly more perennial in such light soils as would be quite unfit for the true _T. pratense_. The latter, indeed, seems to be more permanent in soils containing a quant.i.ty of lime, while the former, where it can be got of a good sort, is certainly best adapted for sandy soils.

2. _Trifolium medium_-Zigzag Trefoil-is distinguished from the _T.

pratense_ by its larger, but more lax, head of reddish pink (not purple) flowers, which are solitary, on the apex of a stalk, which at each joint is bent at a considerable angle; hence its name. Its leaflets are elliptical, and not broader at the upper margin. This plant is a constant denizen of sands and light soils. In fact, its naturally growing in soils unfitted for the broad-leaved clover seems to recommend it for cultivation; and though, as before pointed out, we more than suspect that the so-called cow-gra.s.s clover was originally derived from this source, and that the _T.

medium_ is after all but a variety of the _T. pratense_, it is now quite merged as a farm-plant into the broad-clover forms; so that, if we are to possess it as a separate plant, it must be again grown from the wild seed; and then, if it is to be kept pure, it must not be cultivated on clays or limestones, or, if our view be correct, it will soon lose its true distinctive character.

3. _Trifolium repens_-White Dutch Clover-has been long in cultivation throughout Europe and America. It is one of our commonest native plants, and appears to have become less changed by cultivation than most other plants; yet there is reason to think that with careful selection a much improved strain may be brought about. In pastures an immense accession of Dutch clover is often seen to follow some kind or another of top-dressing, especially of lime, old mortar, or town rubbish. This is accounted for by the fact that this clover is in reality of universal occurrence; and its creeping habit of growth, besides seeding, causes it soon to make a rapid increase where its conditions of growth are made suitable. As an agricultural plant its position is in light soils, for which it is usually mixed with other clovers and gra.s.ses in varied proportions.

4 and 5 are often found scattered in meadows, though not usually in any abundance in those of the richer kind; still, in laying down land for permanent pasture, there can be no objection to a small admixture of their seed.

6, the _Purple Vetchling_, though local in rich river pastures, is yet a good plant, and might perhaps be advantageously brought out as an addendum to mixtures designed for good lowland positions.

7, _Saintfoin_, is a good pasture plant for chalks and limestones; and in laying down land for permanent pastures in such position, should not usually be omitted. It is also a good species to sow on railway banks, not alone for the beauty of its flowers, but for the binding effects of its deeply-diving roots.

8 and 9, the _Burnets_, will be found,-the _true_ in rich damp bottoms and on river flats, the _false_ on dry, calcareous soils. They are neither plants that we should care to grow; but in their wild state in their respective pastures we should, on the other hand, not be inclined to make war against them as weeds. The same opinion, indeed, might be briefly expressed as regards Nos. 10, 12, and 13. In fact, the whole here grouped may be said to possess more or less bitter and astringent qualities, and so become useful in checking the vapidity which is sometimes found in purely gra.s.s herbage.

11, the _Yarrow_, should be encouraged in most pastures, as it not only possesses the qualities just mentioned, but its leaves are so small and its stems and flowers so easily dry when cut, that there is no chance of its smothering out the gra.s.s in growing, or of its r.e.t.a.r.ding the process of haymaking. It also bears constant nibbling with sheep, which are remarkably fond of it, without injury, as it rather becomes finer for being depastured.

12. The larger composite plants, as dandelion, the hawkweeds, blackhead, &c., are, from their coa.r.s.eness and the room they take up, highly objectionable; but the yellow hawkbits, thrincia, and the before-mentioned yarrow, are by no means objectionable.

13. The above remarks will equally apply to the _Umbelliferae_. Large plants like the cow-parsnip and common beaked parsley are objectionable from their size and want of feeding properties, whilst the small pimpinella and earth-nut do not offer these objections. Here, however, it must be confessed that we are bordering on the domains of weeds in pasture, to which we must devote a separate chapter.

CHAPTER XII.

ON THE WEEDS OF PASTURE.

"Weeds in pasture!" said an old farmer friend; "I thought hay and gra.s.s was all weeds." This, which is by no means an uncommon notion, sufficiently explains the want of care in the cultivation of the best kinds of meadow produce, which can only be effected by the destruction of what is useless or mischievous.

Now, if we proceed upon the a.s.sumption that the best kinds of meadow are remarkable for the possession of little else than the best kinds of the true gra.s.ses, we shall see that pasturage should, in the main, be composed of good gra.s.s-growth, with only some few other plants which may be capable of augmenting quant.i.ty, by their nutritive matter, giving flavour, or improving quality.

It follows, then, that all plants having none of these requisites must be, to all intents and purposes, only _mischievous weeds_; as thus a large useless plant in a meadow, as in an arable field, must not only occupy the s.p.a.ce that would be better taken up by good plants, but it appropriates a large quant.i.ty of food to the prejudice of the better crop.