The Abbreviations used by the Romans to express these various kinds of money, were, for the As, L.--for the Sesterce, L. L. S. or H. S.--for the Quinary, V. or ?.--for the Denarius, X. or :!:

Sesterces were the kind of money in which the Romans usually made their computations.--1,000 Sesterces made up a sum called _Sestertium_, the value of which in our money, was thirty-five dollars and seventy cents.

The art of reckoning by Sesterces was regulated by these rules:

First--If a numeral adjective were joined to Sestertii, and agreed with it in case, it signified just so many Sesterces; as _decem Sestertii_, 10 Sesterces--thirty-five cents and seven tenths.

Second--If a numeral adjective, of a different case, were joined to the genitive plural of Sestertius, it signified so many thousand Sesterces; as _decem Sestertium_, 10,000 Sesterces--$357.

Third--If a numeral adverb were placed by itself, or joined to Sestertium, it signified so many hundred thousand Sesterces; as _Decies_, or _decies Sestertium_, 1,000,000 _Sesterces_--$35,700.

Fourth--When the sums are expressed by letters, if the letters have a line over them, they signify also so many hundred thousand Sesterces: thus, H. S. M. C.--denotes the sum of 1,100 times 100,000 Sesterces, i.e. 110,000,000--nearly $4,000,000.

MYTHOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

Celestial G.o.ds.

JUPITER, the supreme G.o.d of the Pagans, though set forth by historians as the wisest of princes, is described by his worshippers as infamous for his vices. There were many who a.s.sumed the name of Jupiter; the most considerable, however, and to whom the actions of the others are ascribed, was the Jupiter of Crete, son to Saturn and Rhea, who is differently said to have had his origin in Crete, at Thebes in Botia, and among the Messenians.

His first warlike exploit, and, indeed, the most memorable of his actions, was his expedition against the t.i.tans, to deliver his parents, who had been imprisoned by these princes, because Saturn, instead of observing an oath he had sworn, to destroy his male children, permitted his son Jupiter, by a stratagem of Rhea, to be educated. Jupiter, for this purpose, raised a gallant army of Cretans, and engaged the Cecropes as auxiliaries in this expedition; but these, after taking his money, having refused their services, he changed into apes. The valor of Jupiter so animated the Cretans, that by their aid he overcame the t.i.tans, released his parents, and, the better to secure the reign of his father, made all the G.o.ds swear fealty to him upon an altar, which has since gained a place among the stars.

This exploit of Jupiter, however, created jealousy in Saturn, who, having learnt from an oracle, that he should be dethroned by one of his sons, secretly meditated the destruction of Jupiter as the most formidable of them. The design of Saturn being discovered by one of his council, Jupiter became the aggressor, deposed his father, threw him into Tartarus, ascended the throne, and was acknowledged as supreme by the rest of the G.o.ds.

The reign of Jupiter being less favorable to his subjects than that of Saturn, gave occasion to the name of the silver age, by which is meant an age inferior in happiness to that which preceded, though superior to those which followed.

The distinguishing character of his person is majesty, and every thing about him carries dignity and authority with it; his look is meant to strike sometimes with terror, and sometimes with grat.i.tude, but always with respect. The Capitoline Jupiter, or the Jupiter Optimus Maximus, (him now spoken of,) was the great guardian of the Romans, and was represented, in his chief temple, on the Capitoline hill, as sitting on a curule chair, with the lightning in his right hand, and a sceptre in his left.

The poets describe him as standing amidst his rapid horses, or his horses that make the thunder; for as the ancients had a strange idea of the brazen vault of heaven, they seem to have attributed the noise in a thunder storm to the rattling of Jupiter's chariot and horses on that great arch of bra.s.s all over their heads, as they supposed that he himself flung the flames out of his hand, which dart at the same time out of the clouds, beneath this arch.

APOLLO was son of Jupiter and Latona, and brother of Diana, and of all the divinities in the pagan world, the chief cherisher and protecter of the polite arts, and the most conspicuous character in heathen theology; nor unjustly, from the glorious attributes ascribed to him, for he was the G.o.d of light, medicine, eloquence, music, poetry and prophecy.

[Ill.u.s.tration:

THE G.o.dS DESCENDING TO BATTLE

IN AID OF TROY, LATONA, PHBUS CAME, MARS FIERY HELM'D, THE LAUGHTER LOVING DAME, XANTHUS, WHOSE STREAMS IN GOLDEN CURRENTS FLOW, AND THE CHASTE HUNTRESS OF THE SILVER BOW.

Pope's Homer's Iliad. B. 20. L. 51.

Pl. 3. ]

Amongst the most remarkable adventures of this G.o.d, was his quarrel with Jupiter, on account of the death of his son aesculapius, killed by that deity on the complaint of Pluto, that he decreased the number of the dead by his cures. Apollo, to revenge this injury, killed the Cyclops who forged the thunder-bolts. For this he was banished heaven, and endured great sufferings on earth, being forced to hire himself as a shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly. During his pastoral servitude, he is said to have invented the lyre to sooth his troubles. He was so skilled in the bow, that his arrows were always fatal. Python and the Cyclops experienced their force.

He became enamored of Daphne, daughter of the river Peneus of Thessaly.

The G.o.d pursued her, but she flying to preserve her chast.i.ty, was changed into a laurel, whose leaves Apollo immediately consecrated to bind his temples, and become the reward of poetry.

His temple at Delphi became so frequented, that it was called the oracle of the earth; all nations and princes vieing in their munificence to it.

The Romans erected to him many temples.

The animals sacred to him were the wolf, from his acuteness of sight, and because he spared his flocks when the G.o.d was a shepherd; the crow and the raven, because these birds were supposed to have, by instinct, the faculty of prediction; the swan, from its divining its own death; the hawk, from its boldness in flight; and the c.o.c.k, because he announces the rising of the sun.

As to the signification of this fabulous divinity, all are agreed that, by Apollo, the sun is understood in general, though several poetical fictions have relation only to the sun, and not to Apollo. The great attributes of this deity were divination, healing, music, and archery, all which manifestly refer to the sun. Light dispelling darkness, is a strong emblem of truth dissipating ignorance;--the warmth of the sun conduces greatly to health; and there can be no juster symbol of the planetary harmony, than Apollo's lyre, the seven strings of which are said to represent the seven planets. As his darts are reported to have destroyed the monster Python, so his rays dry up the noxious moisture which is pernicious to vegetation and fertility.

Apollo was very differently represented in different countries and times, according to the character he a.s.sumed. In general he is described as a beardless youth, with long flowing hair floating as it were in the wind, comely and graceful, crowned with laurel, his garments and sandals shining with gold. In one hand he holds a bow and arrows, in the other a lyre; sometimes a shield and the graces. At other times he is invested in a long robe, and carries a lyre and a cup of nectar, the symbol of his divinity.

He has a threefold authority: in heaven, he is the Sun; and by the lyre intimates, that he is the source of harmony: upon earth he is called _Liber Pater_, and carries a shield to show he is the protector of mankind, and their preserver in health and safety. In the infernal regions he is styled _Apollo_, and his arrows show his authority; whosoever is stricken with them being immediately sent thither. As the Sun, Apollo was represented in a chariot, drawn by the four horses, _Eous_, _aethon_, _Phlegon_, and _Pyroeis_.

Considered in his poetical character, he is called indifferently either _Vates_ or _Lyristes_; music and poetry, in the earliest ages of the world, having made but one and the same profession.

MERCURY was the offspring of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Atlas.

Cyllene, in Arcadia, is said to have been the scene of his birth and education, and a magnificent temple was erected to him there.

That adroitness which formed the most distinguishing trait in his character, began very early to render him conspicuous. Born in the morning, he fabricated a lyre, and played on it by noon; and, before night, filched from Apollo his cattle. The G.o.d of light demanded instant rest.i.tution, and was lavish of menaces, the better to insure it. But his threats were of no avail, for it was soon found that the same thief had disarmed him of his quiver and bow. Being taken up into his arms by Vulcan, he robbed him of his tools, and whilst Venus caressed him for his superiority to Cupid in wrestling, he slipped off her cestus unperceived. From Jupiter he purloined his sceptre, and would have made as free with his thunder-bolt, had it not proved too hot for his fingers.

From being usually employed on Jupiter's errands, he was styled the messenger of the G.o.ds. The Greeks and Romans considered him as presiding over roads and cross-ways, in which they often erected busts of him. He was esteemed the G.o.d of orators and eloquence, the author of letters and oratory. The _caduceus_, or rod, which he constantly carried, was supposed to be possessed of an inherent charm that could subdue the power of enmity: an effect which he discovered by throwing it to separate two serpents found by him fighting on Mount Cytheron: each quitted his adversary, and twined himself on the rod, which Mercury, from that time, bore as the symbol of concord. His musical skill was great, for to him is ascribed the discovery of the three tones, treble, ba.s.s, and tenor.

It was part of his function to attend on the dying, detach their souls from their bodies, and conduct them to the infernal regions. In conjunction with Hercules, he patronized wrestling and the gymnastic exercises; to show that address upon these occasions should always be united with force. The invention of the art of thieving was attributed to him, and the ancients used to paint him on their doors, that he, as G.o.d of thieves, might prevent the intrusion of others. For this reason he was much adored by shepherds, who imagined he could either preserve their own flocks from thieves, or else help to compensate their losses, by dexterously stealing from their neighbors.

At Rome on the fifteenth of May, the month so named from his mother, a festival was celebrated to his honor, by merchants, traders, &c. in which they sacrificed a sow, sprinkled themselves, and the goods they intended for sale, with water from his fountain, and prayed that he would both blot out all the frauds and perjuries they had already committed, and enable them to impose again on their buyers.

Mercury is usually described as a beardless young man, of a fair complexion, with yellow hair, quick eyes, and a cheerful countenance, having wings annexed to his hat and sandals, which were distinguished by the names of _petasus_ and _talaria_: the _caduceus_, in his hand, is winged likewise, and bound round with two serpents: his face is sometimes exhibited half black, on account of his intercourse with the infernal deities: he has often a purse in his hand, and a goat or c.o.c.k, or both, by his side.

The epithets applied to Mercury by the ancients were ??a??????, the presider over combats; St??fa???, the guardian of doors; ?p??a???, the merchant; ?????????, beneficial to mortals; ??????, subtle; ??e?????, the guide, or conductor.

As to his origin, it must be looked for amongst the Phnicians. The bag of money which he held signified the gain of merchandise; the wings annexed to his head and his feet were emblematic of their extensive commerce and navigation; the caduceus, with which he was said to conduct the spirit of the deceased to Hades, pointing out the immortality of the soul, a state of rewards and punishments after death, and a resuscitation of the body: it is described as producing three leaves together, whence it was called by Homer, the _golden three-leaved wand_.

BACCHUS was the son of Jupiter, by Semele, daughter of Cadmus, king of Thebes, in which city he is said to have been born. He was the G.o.d of good-cheer, wine, and hilarity; and of him, as such, the poets have not been sparing in their praises: on all occasions of mirth and jollity, they constantly invoked his presence, and as constantly thanked him for the blessings he bestowed. To him they ascribed the forgetfulness of cares, and the delights of social converse.

He is described as a youth of a plump figure, and naked, with a ruddy face, and an effeminate air; he is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, and bears in his hand a thyrsus, or javelin with an iron head, encircled with ivy and vine leaves: his chariot is sometimes drawn by lions, at others by tigers, leopards, or panthers; and surrounded by a band of Satyrs, Bacchae, and Nymphs, in frantic postures; whilst old Silenus, his preceptor, follows on an a.s.s, which crouches with the weight of his burden.

The women who accompained him as his priestesses, were called Maenades, from their madness; Thyades, from their impetuosity; Bacchae, from their intemperate depravity; and Mimallones, or Mimallonides, from their mimicking their leaders.

The victims agreeable to him were the goat and the swine; because these animals are destructive to the vine. Among the Egyptians they sacrificed a swine to him before their doors; and the dragon, and the pye on account of its chattering: the trees and plants used in his garlands were the fir, the oak, ivy, the fig, and vine; as also the daffodil, or narcissus. Bacchus had many temples erected to him by the Greeks and the Romans.

Whoever attentively reads Horace's inimitable ode to this G.o.d, will see that Bacchus meant no more than the improvement of the world by tillage, and the culture of the vine.

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