A marriage ceremony was never solemnized without consulting the auspices, and offering sacrifices to the G.o.ds, particularly to Juno; and the animals offered up on the occasion were deprived of their gall, in allusion to the absence of every thing bitter and malignant in the proposed union.

A legal marriage was made in three different ways, called _confarreatio_, _usus_ and _coemptio_.

The first of these was the most ancient. A priest, in the presence of ten witnesses, made an offering to the G.o.ds, of a cake composed of salt water, and that kind of flour called "_far_," from which the name of the ceremony was derived. The bride and bridegroom mutually partook of this, to denote the union that was to subsist between them, and the sacrifice of a sheep ratified the interchange of their vows.

When a woman, with the consent of her parents or guardian, lived an entire year with a man, with the intention of becoming his wife, it was called _usus_.

_Coemptio_ was an imaginary purchase which the husband and wife made of each other, by the exchange of some pieces of money.

A plurality of wives was forbidden among the Romans. The marriageable age was from fourteen for men, and twelve for girls.

On the wedding day the bride was dressed in a simple robe of pure white, bound with a zone of wool, which her husband alone was to unloose: her hair was divided into six locks, with the point of a spear, and crowned with flowers; she wore a saffron colored veil, which enveloped the entire person: her shoes were yellow, and had unusually high heels to give her an appearance of greater dignity.

Thus attired she waited the arrival of the bridegroom, who went with a party of friends and carried her off with an appearance of violence, from the arms of her parents, to denote the reluctance she was supposed to feel at leaving her paternal roof.

The nuptial ceremony was then performed; in the evening she was conducted to her future home, preceded by the priests, and followed by her relations, friends, and servants, carrying presents of various domestic utensils.

The door of the bridegroom's house was hung with garlands of flowers.

When the bride came hither, she was asked who she was; she answered, addressing the bridegroom, "Where thou art Caius, there shall I be Caia," intimating that she would imitate the exemplary life of Caia, the wife of Tarquinius Priscus. She was then lifted over the threshold, or gently stepped over, it being considered ominous to touch it with her feet, because it was sacred to Vesta the G.o.ddess of Virgins.

Upon her entrance, the keys of the house were delivered to her, to denote her being intrusted with the management of the family, and both she and her husband touched fire and water to intimate that their union was to last through every extremity. The bridegroom then gave a great supper to all the company. This feast was accompanied with music and dancing, and the guests sang a nuptial song in praise of the new married couple.

The Romans paid great attention to funeral rites, because they believed that the souls of the unburied were not admitted into the abodes of the dead; or at least wandered a hundred years along the river Styx before they were allowed to cross it.

When any one was at the point of death, his nearest relation present endeavored to catch his last breath with his mouth, for they believed that the soul or living principle thus went out at the mouth. The corpse was then bathed and perfumed; dressed in the richest robes of the deceased, and laid upon a couch strewn with flowers, with the feet towards the outer door.

The funeral took place by torch light. The corpse was carried with the feet foremost on an open bier covered with the richest cloth, and borne by the nearest relatives and friends. It was preceded by the image of the deceased, together with those of his ancestors.

The procession was attended by musicians, with wind instruments of a larger size and a deeper tone than those used on less solemn occasions; mourning women were likewise hired to sing the praises of the deceased.

On the conclusion of the ceremony the sepulchre was strewed with flowers, and the mourners took a last farewell of the remains of the deceased. Water was then thrown upon the attendants, by a priest, to purify them from the pollution which the ancients supposed to be communicated by any contact with a corpse.

The manes of the dead were supposed to be propitiated by blood:--on this account a custom prevailed of slaughtering, on the tomb of the deceased, those animals of which he was most fond when living.

When the custom of burning the dead was introduced, a funeral pile was constructed in the shape of an altar, upon which the corpse was laid; the nearest relative then set fire to it:--perfumes and spices were afterwards thrown into the blaze, and when it was extinguished, the embers were quenched with wine. The ashes were then collected and deposited in an urn, to be kept in the mausoleum of the family.

CHAPTER XXIII.

_Customs at Meals._

The food of the ancient Romans was of the simplest kind; they rarely indulged in meat, and wine was almost wholly unknown. So averse were they to luxury, that epicures were expelled from among them. But when riches were introduced by the extension of conquest, the manners of the people were changed, and the pleasures of the table became the chief object of attention.

Their princ.i.p.al meal was what they called _cna_ or supper. The usual time for it was the ninth hour, or about three o'clock in the afternoon.

While at meals, they reclined on sumptuous couches of a semicircular form, around a table of the same shape. This custom was introduced from the nations of the east, and was at first adopted only by the men, but afterwards allowed also to the women.

The dress worn at table differed from that in use on other occasions, and consisted merely of a loose robe of a slight texture, and generally white.

Before supper the Romans bathed themselves, and took various kinds of exercise, such as tennis, throwing the discus or quoit, riding, running, leaping, &c.

Small figures of Mercury, Hercules and the penates, were placed upon the table, of which they were deemed the presiding genii; and a small quant.i.ty of wine was poured upon the board, at the commencement and end of the feast, as a libation in honor of them, accompanied by a prayer.

As the ancients had not proper inns for the accommodation of travellers, the Romans, when they were in foreign countries, or at a distance from home, used to lodge at the houses of certain persons whom they in return entertained at their houses in Rome. This was esteemed a very intimate connexion, and was called _hospitium_, or _jus hospitii_: hence _hospes_ is put both for a host and a guest.

CHAPTER XXIV.

_Weights, Measures and Coins._

The princ.i.p.al Weight in use among the Romans, was the pound, called _As_ or _Libra_, which was equal to 12 oz. avoirdupoise, or 16 oz. 18 pwts.

and 13-3/4 grains, troy weight. It was divided into twelve ounces, the names of which were as follow: _Uncia_, 1 oz.--_s.e.xtans_, 2 oz.--_Triens_, 3 oz.--_Quadrans_, 4 oz.--_Quincunx_, 5 oz.--_Semis_, 1/2 lb.--_Septunx_, 7 oz--_Bes_, 8 oz.--_Dodrans_, 9 oz.--_Dextans_, 10 oz.--_Deunx_, 11 oz.

The As and its divisions were applied to anything divided into twelve parts, as well as to a pound weight. The twelth part of an acre was called Uncia and half a foot, Semis, &c.

The Measures for Things Dry.--_Modius_, a peck--_Semimodius_, a gallon--_s.e.xta.n.u.s_, a pint--_Hemina_, one-half pint, and 3 smaller measures, for which we have not equivalent names in English. One Modius contained 2 _Semimodii_--each Semimodius contained 8 _s.e.xtarii_--each s.e.xtarius, 2 _Heminae_--each Hemina, 4 _Acetabula_--each Acetabulum, 1-1/2 _Cyathi_--each Cyathus--4 _Ligulae_.

The Liquid Measures of Capacity were the _Culeus_, which was equal to 144-1/2 gallons--it contained 20 _Amphorae_ or _Quadrantales_--each Amphora, 2 _Urnae_--each Urna, 4 _Congii_--each Congius, 6 _s.e.xtarii_--and each s.e.xtarius, 2 _Quartarii_ or naggins--each Quartarius, 2 _Heminae_--each Hemina, 3 _Acetabula_ or gla.s.ses--each Acetabulum, 1-1/2 _Cyathi_--and each Cyathus, 4 _Ligulae_.

The Measures of Length in use among the Romans were, _Millarium_ or _Mille_, a mile--each mile contained 8 _Stadia_, or furlongs--each Stadium, 125 _Pa.s.sus_--each Pace, 5 feet.

The _Pes_, or foot, was variously divided. It contained 4 _Palmi_ or handbreadths, each of which was therefore 3 inches long--and it contained 16 _Digiti_, or finger breadths, each of which was therefore three-quarters of an inch long--and it contained 12 _Unciae_, or inches: any number of which was used to signify the same number of ounces.

_Cubitus_, a cubit, was 1-1/2 feet long--_Pollex_, a thumb's breadth, 1 inch--_Palmipes_, a foot and hand's breadth, i.e. 15 inches long--_Pertica_, a perch, 10 feet long--the lesser _Actus_ was a s.p.a.ce of ground 120 feet long by four broad--the greater Actus was 120 feet square--two square Actus made a _Jugerum_, or acre, which contained therefore 28,000 square feet.

The first money in use among the Romans was nothing more than unsightly lumps of bra.s.s, which were valued according to their weight. Servius Tullius stamped these, and reduced them to a fixed standard. After his reign, the Romans improved the old, and added some new coins. Those in most frequent use, were the _As_, _Sestertius_, _Victoriatus_, _Denarius_, _Aureus_.

The As was a bra.s.s coin, stamped on one side with the beak of a ship, and on the other with the double head of Ja.n.u.s. It originally weighed one pound; but was afterwards reduced to half an ounce, without suffering, however, any diminution of value. It was worth one cent and forty-three hundredths.

Sestertius was a silver coin, stamped on one side with Castor and Pollux, and on the opposite with the city. This was so current a coin, that the word _Nummus_, money, is often used absolutely to express it.

It was worth three cents and fifty-seven hundredths.

Denarius was a silver coin, valued at ten a.s.ses; that is, fourteen cents and thirty-five hundredths of our money. It was stamped with the figure of a carriage drawn by four beasts, and on the other side, with a head covered with a helmet, to represent Rome.

Victoriatus was a silver coin, half the value of a Denarius. It was stamped with the figure of Victory, from whence its name was derived.

Being worth five a.s.ses, it was called _Quinarius_.

_Libella_, _Sembella_, _Teruncius_, were also silver coins, but of less value than the above. Libella was of the same worth as the As--Sembella was half a Libella, equal to seventy-one hundredths of a cent--and the Teruncius was half of a Sembella.

Aureus Denarius was a gold coin, about the size of a silver Denarius, and probably stamped in a similar manner. At first, forty Aurei were made out of a pound of gold; but under the Emperors it was not so intrinsically valuable, being mixed with alloy.

The value of the Aureus, which was also called _Solidus_, varied at different times. According to Tacitus, it was valued and exchanged for 25 Denarii, which amounted to three dollars, fifty-eight cents and seventy-five hundredths.