Fruit Fruit

Alcohol Content, Percent by Volume

4.75.8 4.75.8

Unusual Ingredients

Cherry, raspberry, other fruits Cherry, raspberry, other fruits

Qualities

Tart, fruity, complex Tart, fruity, complex

Beer Style

Barley wine Barley wine

Alcohol Content, Percent by Volume

812+ 812+

Unusual Ingredients

Qualities

Malty, fruity, full-bodied Malty, fruity, full-bodied

Adapted from "Guide to Beer Styles," Beer Judge Certification Program 2001, and other sources. Adapted from "Guide to Beer Styles," Beer Judge Certification Program 2001, and other sources.

Wheat Beers German wheat beers differ from the usual Bavarian brew in four ways. First, a large fraction of the barley malt is replaced by wheat malt, which carries more protein, produces a more foamy and hazy brew, and lightens the typical malt flavor. Second, wheat beers are top-fermented like ales, and so develop more tartness and fruitiness. Third, the culture often includes an unusual yeast ( German wheat beers differ from the usual Bavarian brew in four ways. First, a large fraction of the barley malt is replaced by wheat malt, which carries more protein, produces a more foamy and hazy brew, and lightens the typical malt flavor. Second, wheat beers are top-fermented like ales, and so develop more tartness and fruitiness. Third, the culture often includes an unusual yeast (Torulaspora) that produces aroma compounds not usually found in beer. These volatile phenols (vinyl guaiacol, p. 738) may suggest cloves and similar spices, but also a medicinal quality like that of plastic bandages, or an animal quality reminiscent of the barnyard or stable. Finally, some wheat beers are not fully clarified, and retain some of their yeast, which gives them a cloudy appearance and yeasty flavor. German wheat beers may be called Weizen Weizen for "wheat," for "wheat," Hefe-weizen Hefe-weizen for "yeast-wheat," or for "yeast-wheat," or Weissen Weissen for "white," referring to their cloudy appearance. for "white," referring to their cloudy appearance.

Some American breweries now produce wheat beers on the German model, but usually without the phenol-producing yeast; they are mild, tart, and cloudy.

Belgian Lambic Beers The brewers of Belgium have been more inventive than any others. They allow many different microbes to partic.i.p.ate in the fermentation; they ferment some beers for years, either continuously or by restarting them; they flavor their beers with spices and herbs, and even re-ferment them with fresh fruits to make a hybrid beer and fruit wine. They generally used aged hops, which are less harmful to the unusual brewing microbes, less bitter, and higher in drying, slightly astringent, wine-like tannins. The brewers of Belgium have been more inventive than any others. They allow many different microbes to partic.i.p.ate in the fermentation; they ferment some beers for years, either continuously or by restarting them; they flavor their beers with spices and herbs, and even re-ferment them with fresh fruits to make a hybrid beer and fruit wine. They generally used aged hops, which are less harmful to the unusual brewing microbes, less bitter, and higher in drying, slightly astringent, wine-like tannins.

The most unusual Belgian beers are the lambics. lambics. The hallmark of brewing traditional lambic is a spontaneous and months-long fermentation of the wort in wood barrels. Once the wort has been boiled, it is cooled in a broad open tank, where it picks up microbes from the ambient air. The cool wort is then poured into wooden casks that contribute microbes from previous batches, and ferments in the casks for 6 to 24 months. The fermentation proceeds in four stages: an initial growth of wild yeasts ( The hallmark of brewing traditional lambic is a spontaneous and months-long fermentation of the wort in wood barrels. Once the wort has been boiled, it is cooled in a broad open tank, where it picks up microbes from the ambient air. The cool wort is then poured into wooden casks that contribute microbes from previous batches, and ferments in the casks for 6 to 24 months. The fermentation proceeds in four stages: an initial growth of wild yeasts (Kloeckera and others) and various bacteria ( and others) and various bacteria (Enterobacter and others) that takes 1015 days and produces acetic acid and vegetable aromas; the main alcohol-producing growth of and others) that takes 1015 days and produces acetic acid and vegetable aromas; the main alcohol-producing growth of Saccharomyces Saccharomyces yeasts, which dominate for several months; at 6 to 8 months, the acid-producing growth of lactic and acetic bacteria ( yeasts, which dominate for several months; at 6 to 8 months, the acid-producing growth of lactic and acetic bacteria (Pediococcus, Acetobacter); and finally the growth of Brettanomyces Brettanomyces yeasts, which produce a range of fruity, spicy, smoky, and animal aromas (see box, p. 730). The resulting brew may then be blended with other lambics and aged to make yeasts, which produce a range of fruity, spicy, smoky, and animal aromas (see box, p. 730). The resulting brew may then be blended with other lambics and aged to make gueuze, gueuze, with a wine-like acidity and complexity; or blended with some ordinary top-fermented ale and flavored with sugar and coriander to make with a wine-like acidity and complexity; or blended with some ordinary top-fermented ale and flavored with sugar and coriander to make faro faro; or re-fermented in the barrel for four to six months with fresh whole cherries or raspberries, to make kriek kriek and and framboise. framboise.

Asian Rice Alcohols: Chinese Chiu Chiu and j.a.panese and j.a.panese Sake Sake Sweet Moldy Grains The peoples of eastern Asia developed their own distinctive form of alcohol, one that the rest of the world is coming to appreciate more and more. It's not exactly a wine, because it's fermented from starchy grains, mainly rice. But it's not exactly a beer either, because the grain starch is not digested into fermentable sugars by grain enzymes. Instead, Asian brewers use a mold to supply the starch-digesting enzymes, and the mold digests the grain starch at the same time that the yeasts are converting the sugars into alcohol. The resulting liquid can reach an alcohol concentration of 20%, far stronger than Western beers and wines. Chinese chiu chiu and j.a.panese and j.a.panese sake sake don't have the grapey fruitiness or acidity of wine, nor the malt or hop characters of beer. Because it's made from only the starchy heart of the rice grain, sake is perhaps the purest expression of the flavor of fermentation itself, surprisingly fruity and flowery even though no fruit or flower has come near it. don't have the grapey fruitiness or acidity of wine, nor the malt or hop characters of beer. Because it's made from only the starchy heart of the rice grain, sake is perhaps the purest expression of the flavor of fermentation itself, surprisingly fruity and flowery even though no fruit or flower has come near it.

Why and how did Asians come up with this alternative to sprouting grains? The historian H. T. Huang suggests that the key was their reliance on small, fragile millet and rice grains, which unlike barley and wheat are easily and usually cooked whole. Huang speculates that leftover cooked grains were frequently left sitting out long enough to get moldy; and because there are air s.p.a.ces in a ma.s.s of grains, the oxygen-requiring molds would have grown well and digested starch throughout the ma.s.s. People eventually noticed that moldy rice tasted sweet and smelled alcoholic. Sometime before the 3rd century BCE BCE, these simple observations led to a regular technique for producing alcoholic liquids. By 500 CE CE, a Chinese source lists nine different mold preparations and 37 different alcoholic products.

Today, few people outside of China have heard of chiu, chiu, but many millions have heard of its j.a.panese counterpart, but many millions have heard of its j.a.panese counterpart, sake sake(p.r.o.nounced "sa-kay"). Rice cultivation and probably chiu chiu production were brought to j.a.pan from the Asian mainland around 300 production were brought to j.a.pan from the Asian mainland around 300 BCE BCE. Over the following centuries, j.a.panese brewers so refined chiu chiu that it became something distinctive. that it became something distinctive.

Starch-Digesting Molds Though modern industrial production has brought a number of common shortcuts and simplifications, Chinese and j.a.panese brewers have traditionally used very different preparations for breaking rice starch down into fermentable sugars.

Chinese Chhu Chhu : Several Molds and Yeasts : Several Molds and Yeasts The ancient Chinese preparation, The ancient Chinese preparation, chhu, chhu, is usually made from wheat or rice, and includes several different kinds of mold as well as the yeasts that will eventually produce the alcohol. Some of the wheat may be roasted or left raw, but most is steamed, coa.r.s.ely ground, shaped into cakes, and then left to mold in incubation rooms for several weeks. Species of is usually made from wheat or rice, and includes several different kinds of mold as well as the yeasts that will eventually produce the alcohol. Some of the wheat may be roasted or left raw, but most is steamed, coa.r.s.ely ground, shaped into cakes, and then left to mold in incubation rooms for several weeks. Species of Aspergillus Aspergillus grow on the outside, and species of grow on the outside, and species of Rhizopus Rhizopus and and Mucor Mucor on the inside. on the inside. Aspergillus Aspergillus is the same kind of mold used to digest soybeans to make soy sauce and is the same kind of mold used to digest soybeans to make soy sauce and Rhizopus Rhizopus is the major mold in soybean is the major mold in soybean tempeh tempeh (p. 496, 500), while (p. 496, 500), while Mucor Mucor is important in some kinds of aged cheeses. All of them acc.u.mulate starch-and protein-digesting enzymes, and generate trace byproducts that contribute flavor. Once the grain cakes have been well permeated with microbes, they're dried for storage. When needed for is important in some kinds of aged cheeses. All of them acc.u.mulate starch-and protein-digesting enzymes, and generate trace byproducts that contribute flavor. Once the grain cakes have been well permeated with microbes, they're dried for storage. When needed for chiu chiu production, they're soaked in water for several days to reactivate the microbes and their enzymes. production, they're soaked in water for several days to reactivate the microbes and their enzymes.

Pasteurization Before PasteurUnlike European wines and beers, chiu chiu was usually served warm or hot. Perhaps because they noticed that heated leftovers kept better than the original batch, by 1000 was usually served warm or hot. Perhaps because they noticed that heated leftovers kept better than the original batch, by 1000CE the Chinese had developed the practice of steaming containers of newly fermented the Chinese had developed the practice of steaming containers of newly fermented chiu chiu to slow its deterioration. In the 16th century, j.a.panese brewers refined this method by lowering the heating temperature to 140150F/6065C, which is high enough to kill most enzymes and microbes, but does less damage to the flavor of the sake. Asian brewers were thus "pasteurizing" their alcohols centuries before Louis Pasteur suggested gently heating wine and milk to kill spoilage microbes. to slow its deterioration. In the 16th century, j.a.panese brewers refined this method by lowering the heating temperature to 140150F/6065C, which is high enough to kill most enzymes and microbes, but does less damage to the flavor of the sake. Asian brewers were thus "pasteurizing" their alcohols centuries before Louis Pasteur suggested gently heating wine and milk to kill spoilage microbes.

j.a.panese Koji Koji and and Moto Moto: One Mold, Separate Yeast The j.a.panese The j.a.panese koji, koji, by contrast, is made fresh for each particular sake brewing, is based only on polished, unground rice, and is inoculated with a selected culture of by contrast, is made fresh for each particular sake brewing, is based only on polished, unground rice, and is inoculated with a selected culture of Aspergillus oryzae Aspergillus oryzae alone, with no other molds. The mold preparation for sake therefore doesn't provide the complexity of flavor that the Chinese preparation does, with its roasted wheat, variety of microbes, and period of drying. alone, with no other molds. The mold preparation for sake therefore doesn't provide the complexity of flavor that the Chinese preparation does, with its roasted wheat, variety of microbes, and period of drying.

Because the koji contains no yeasts, the j.a.panese system requires a separate source of yeast. The traditional yeast preparation, the moto, moto, is made by allowing a mixture of koji and cooked rice gruel to sour spontaneously with a mixed population of bacteria, mainly lactic acid producers ( is made by allowing a mixture of koji and cooked rice gruel to sour spontaneously with a mixed population of bacteria, mainly lactic acid producers (Lactobacillus sake, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and others) that contribute tart and savory tastes and some aroma. A pure yeast culture is then added and allowed to multiply. Because this microbe-soured moto takes more than a month to mature, it has been largely replaced by the simple addition of organic acids to the moto mash, or by the addition of acids and concentrated yeasts directly to the main fermentation. These time-saving methods tend to produce lighter, less complex sakes.

Brewing Rice Alcohols Simultaneous, Stepwise Fermentation Chinese and j.a.panese brewing methods differ in important details, but they also share several important features. The starch-digesting molds and alcohol-producing yeasts are added to the cooked rice gruel together, and work simultaneously. Unlike the making of beer, where a liquid is extracted from the grain and only the liquid is fermented, the thick gruel of cooked rice is fermented whole. And the rice is introduced gradually into the fermentation, not all at once: new portions of cooked rice and water are added to the vat at intervals during the fermentation, which lasts from two weeks to several months. All of these practices apparently contribute to the yeasts' ability to continue producing alcohol to high concentrations. When rice is added toward the end of fermentation, some sugar remains unmetabolized by the yeasts, and the resulting alcohol is sweet. Chinese and j.a.panese brewing methods differ in important details, but they also share several important features. The starch-digesting molds and alcohol-producing yeasts are added to the cooked rice gruel together, and work simultaneously. Unlike the making of beer, where a liquid is extracted from the grain and only the liquid is fermented, the thick gruel of cooked rice is fermented whole. And the rice is introduced gradually into the fermentation, not all at once: new portions of cooked rice and water are added to the vat at intervals during the fermentation, which lasts from two weeks to several months. All of these practices apparently contribute to the yeasts' ability to continue producing alcohol to high concentrations. When rice is added toward the end of fermentation, some sugar remains unmetabolized by the yeasts, and the resulting alcohol is sweet.

Chinese Practice: Ordinary Rice and High Temperatures Traditional Chinese brewing begins with soaking the mold preparation in water for several days, and then proceeds with the periodic addition of ordinary cooked rice over the course of an initial fermentation that may last one or two weeks at a temperature around 85F/30C. At the end of this phase, the mash is often divided into smaller containers and held at cooler temperatures for weeks or months. The liquid is then pressed from the solids, filtered, adjusted with water and colored with caramel, pasteurized at 190200F/8590C for 510 minutes, matured for several months, then filtered and packaged. The high-temperature pasteurization helps develop the finished flavor. Traditional Chinese brewing begins with soaking the mold preparation in water for several days, and then proceeds with the periodic addition of ordinary cooked rice over the course of an initial fermentation that may last one or two weeks at a temperature around 85F/30C. At the end of this phase, the mash is often divided into smaller containers and held at cooler temperatures for weeks or months. The liquid is then pressed from the solids, filtered, adjusted with water and colored with caramel, pasteurized at 190200F/8590C for 510 minutes, matured for several months, then filtered and packaged. The high-temperature pasteurization helps develop the finished flavor.

j.a.panese Practice: Polished Rice and Low Temperatures Chinese brewers use rice that has been milled to remove about 10% of the grain, only slightly more than is removed to make ordinary white rice for cooking (p. 472). In j.a.pan, however, the rice for anything above the standard grade of sake must be milled to remove a minimum of 30% of the grain, and the highest grades of sake are made with rice that has been polished down to 50% or less of its original weight. The center of the rice grain is the portion that contains the most starch and the least protein or oil, so the more the outer layers of the rice are ground away, the simpler and purer the remaining grain, and the less grain flavor it contributes to the final liquid. Chinese brewers use rice that has been milled to remove about 10% of the grain, only slightly more than is removed to make ordinary white rice for cooking (p. 472). In j.a.pan, however, the rice for anything above the standard grade of sake must be milled to remove a minimum of 30% of the grain, and the highest grades of sake are made with rice that has been polished down to 50% or less of its original weight. The center of the rice grain is the portion that contains the most starch and the least protein or oil, so the more the outer layers of the rice are ground away, the simpler and purer the remaining grain, and the less grain flavor it contributes to the final liquid.

Sake is also fermented at significantly lower temperatures than Chinese rice alcohols. Beginning in the 18th century, most sake brewing was reserved for the winter months, and this remains largely the case today. The upper limit for sake brewing is around 64F/18C, and brewers of the highest grades will keep the temperature at a distinctly chilly 50F/10C. In these conditions, the fermentation takes about a month instead of two to three weeks, and the mash acc.u.mulates two to five times the normal quant.i.ty of aroma compounds, notably the esters that provide apple, banana, and other fruity notes.

Once the sake fermentation is complete, the liquid is pressed from the solids, then filtered, diluted with water to 1516% alcohol, and held for some weeks to allow the flavor to mellow. It's also pasteurized (at 140150F/6065C) after filtering and again before bottling to denature any remaining enzymes, one of which otherwise slowly generates a particularly unpleasant volatile (sweaty isovaleraldehyde).

Making Sake Varieties of Sake There is a broad range of different grades and kinds of sake. Both the cheapest and the standard grades are made by adding substantial amounts of pure alcohol to the mash just before pressing. This became standard industrial practice during the war years because it greatly increases the yield from a given quant.i.ty of rice. Sugar and various organic acids can also be added to these grades. At the other end of the scale, there are premium versions made with nothing but rice, water, and microbes, painstakingly cultured in the traditional way. The box below gives examples of some kinds worth seeking out. There is a broad range of different grades and kinds of sake. Both the cheapest and the standard grades are made by adding substantial amounts of pure alcohol to the mash just before pressing. This became standard industrial practice during the war years because it greatly increases the yield from a given quant.i.ty of rice. Sugar and various organic acids can also be added to these grades. At the other end of the scale, there are premium versions made with nothing but rice, water, and microbes, painstakingly cultured in the traditional way. The box below gives examples of some kinds worth seeking out.

Though much sake is drunk warm as Chinese rice alcohols are, connoisseurs prefer to chill finer examples. In general, sake is less tart and more delicately flavored than wine. Savory amino acids are an important element. Its aroma varies a great deal depending on how it was made, and features the biochemical artistry of the yeasts. Fruity esters and flowery complex alcohols are usually prominent.

Some Kinds of SakeSake made to be savored is usually of the grade ginjo, ginjo, or "special," in which pure alcohol is the only allowed additive and at least 40% of the rice grain has been removed. or "special," in which pure alcohol is the only allowed additive and at least 40% of the rice grain has been removed. Junmaishu Junmaishu is sake made only with rice and water. Some interesting specialty sakes include the following: is sake made only with rice and water. Some interesting specialty sakes include the following:

Genmaishu

Brewed with brown rice Brewed with brown rice

Genshu

Undiluted, and so around 20% alcohol Undiluted, and so around 20% alcohol

Kimoto

"Live" moto, the yeast preparation soured slowly by bacteria and not instantly with pure acids "Live" moto, the yeast preparation soured slowly by bacteria and not instantly with pure acids

Namazake

"Live" sake because unpasteurized and so containing active enzymes, to be kept refrigerated and drunk soon "Live" sake because unpasteurized and so containing active enzymes, to be kept refrigerated and drunk soon

Orizake and Nigorizake

Cloudy sakes that include lees, yeast cells, and other fine particles from the mash Cloudy sakes that include lees, yeast cells, and other fine particles from the mash

Shizuku

"Droplets" sake, made by allowing the liquid to drain by gravity from the mash rather than pressing "Droplets" sake, made by allowing the liquid to drain by gravity from the mash rather than pressing

Taruzake

"Keg" sake, aged in cedar barrels "Keg" sake, aged in cedar barrels

OPPOSITE: Making sake. One of the unusual features of sake fermentation is the repeated addition of cooked rice to the fermenting mash over the course of several weeks. Making sake. One of the unusual features of sake fermentation is the repeated addition of cooked rice to the fermenting mash over the course of several weeks.

Sake Is Fragile Sake and its delicate flavors are vulnerable to alteration by exposure to both light and high temperatures. It's best drunk as young as possible. The clear and blue bottles in which it's usually packaged offer little protection, so sake should be kept in the cool and dark of the refrigerator, and once opened should be consumed quickly. Sake and its delicate flavors are vulnerable to alteration by exposure to both light and high temperatures. It's best drunk as young as possible. The clear and blue bottles in which it's usually packaged offer little protection, so sake should be kept in the cool and dark of the refrigerator, and once opened should be consumed quickly.

Distilled Spirits Distilled spirits are the concentrated essence of wine and beer. They're the product of a basic chemical fact: different substances boil at different temperatures. The boiling point of alcohol is about 173F/78C, well below water's 212F/100C. This means that if a mixture of water and alcohol is heated, more of the alcohol than the water will end up in the vapor. That vapor can then be cooled and condensed back into a liquid that has a higher alcoholic content than the original beer or wine.

Distilled spirits were first valued, and still are, for their high alcohol content. But there's much more to them than their intoxicating power. Like alcohol, the substances that give wine and beer their aroma are also volatile: so the same process that concentrates alcohol also concentrates aroma. Distilled alcohols are some of the most intensely flavorful foods we have.

The History of Distilled Spirits The Discovery of Distillation High concentrations of alcohol are toxic to all living things, including the yeasts that produce it. Brewing yeasts can't tolerate more than about 20%. So stronger drink can only be made by physically concentrating the alcohol in fermented liquids. The key to discovering distilled alcohol would have been two observations: that the vapors of a heated liquid can be recaptured by condensing them on a cool surface, and that the vapors of heated wine or beer are more strongly alcoholic than the original liquid. High concentrations of alcohol are toxic to all living things, including the yeasts that produce it. Brewing yeasts can't tolerate more than about 20%. So stronger drink can only be made by physically concentrating the alcohol in fermented liquids. The key to discovering distilled alcohol would have been two observations: that the vapors of a heated liquid can be recaptured by condensing them on a cool surface, and that the vapors of heated wine or beer are more strongly alcoholic than the original liquid.

The practice of distillation itself appears to be very old. There's evidence that the Mesopotamians were concentrating the essential oils of aromatic plants more than 5,000 years ago, using a simple heated pot and a lid onto which vapors condensed and could be collected. And Aristotle noted in the 4th century BCE BCE in his in his Meteorology Meteorology that "Sea water, when it is converted into vapor, becomes drinkable, nor does it form sea water when it condenses again." Concentrated alcohol may have been discovered for the first time in ancient China. Archaeological finds and written doc.u.ments suggest that Chinese alchemists were distilling small amounts of concentrated alcohol from grain preparations around 2,000 years ago. A privileged few were drinking it before the 10th century, and by the 13th it was a commercial product. that "Sea water, when it is converted into vapor, becomes drinkable, nor does it form sea water when it condenses again." Concentrated alcohol may have been discovered for the first time in ancient China. Archaeological finds and written doc.u.ments suggest that Chinese alchemists were distilling small amounts of concentrated alcohol from grain preparations around 2,000 years ago. A privileged few were drinking it before the 10th century, and by the 13th it was a commercial product.

j.a.panese Cooking Alcohols: Mirin and Sake LeesMirin is a sweet j.a.panese cooking alcohol. It's made by combining cooked polished rice, koji, and is a sweet j.a.panese cooking alcohol. It's made by combining cooked polished rice, koji, and shochu, shochu, a distilled spirit made from a low-grade sake. The alcohol inhibits any further alcoholic fermentation. Instead, during two months at a warm 7786F/2530C, the koji mold and enzymes slowly convert the rice starch into glucose. The full-bodied liquid is drawn off and clarified, and ends up at around 14% alcohol and from 10% to as much as 45% sugar. Industrial imitations are made from grain alcohol, sugar, and flavorings. a distilled spirit made from a low-grade sake. The alcohol inhibits any further alcoholic fermentation. Instead, during two months at a warm 7786F/2530C, the koji mold and enzymes slowly convert the rice starch into glucose. The full-bodied liquid is drawn off and clarified, and ends up at around 14% alcohol and from 10% to as much as 45% sugar. Industrial imitations are made from grain alcohol, sugar, and flavorings.The solids left after pressing and filtering the sake mash are called sake kasu, sake kasu, or sake lees. They include starch, proteins, the cell walls of rice, yeasts, and molds, and some acids, alcohol, and enzymes. These sake lees are much used in j.a.panese cooking, especially in the making of vegetable pickles, marinades for fish, and soups. or sake lees. They include starch, proteins, the cell walls of rice, yeasts, and molds, and some acids, alcohol, and enzymes. These sake lees are much used in j.a.panese cooking, especially in the making of vegetable pickles, marinades for fish, and soups.

Spirits and Waters of Life In Europe, significant quant.i.ties of distilled alcohol were produced around 1100 at the medical school in Salerno, Italy, where it developed its reputation as a uniquely valuable medicine. Two hundred years later, the Catalan scholar Arnaud of Villanova dubbed the active principle of wine In Europe, significant quant.i.ties of distilled alcohol were produced around 1100 at the medical school in Salerno, Italy, where it developed its reputation as a uniquely valuable medicine. Two hundred years later, the Catalan scholar Arnaud of Villanova dubbed the active principle of wine aqua vitae, aqua vitae, the "water of life," a term that lives on in Scandinavia ( the "water of life," a term that lives on in Scandinavia (aquavit), in France (eau de vie), and in English: whisky whisky is the anglicized version of the Gaelic for "water of life," is the anglicized version of the Gaelic for "water of life," uisge beatha uisge beatha or or usquebaugh, usquebaugh, which is what Irish and Scots monks called their distilled barley beer. Throughout the Old World, alchemists thought of distilled alcohol as a uniquely powerful substance, the which is what Irish and Scots monks called their distilled barley beer. Throughout the Old World, alchemists thought of distilled alcohol as a uniquely powerful substance, the quintessence quintessence or fifth element that was as fundamental as earth, water, air, and fire. The first printed book devoted to distillation, Hieronymus Brunschwygk's or fifth element that was as fundamental as earth, water, air, and fire. The first printed book devoted to distillation, Hieronymus Brunschwygk's Liber de arte distillandi Liber de arte distillandi (1500), explained that the process achieves (1500), explained that the process achieves the separation of the gross from the subtle and the subtle from the gross, the breakable and destructible from the indestructible, the material from the immaterial, so as to make the body more spiritual, the unlovely lovely, to make the spiritual lighter by its subtlety, to penetrate with its concealed virtues and force into the human body to do its healing duty.

It's this connection between distillation and the pure and ethereal that gives us our synonym for distilled alcohol, spirits. spirits.

From Medicine to Pleasure and Drug of Oblivion For several centuries after its discovery, For several centuries after its discovery, aqua vitae aqua vitae was produced in apothecaries and monasteries and prescribed as a was produced in apothecaries and monasteries and prescribed as a cordial, cordial, a medicine to stimulate the circulation (the word comes from the Latin for "heart"). It seems to have been liberated from the pharmacy and drunk for pleasure in the 15th century, when the terms a medicine to stimulate the circulation (the word comes from the Latin for "heart"). It seems to have been liberated from the pharmacy and drunk for pleasure in the 15th century, when the terms Bernewyn Bernewyn and and brannten Wein, brannten Wein, ancestors of our word ancestors of our word brandy brandy that meant "burning" or "burnt" wine, appear in German laws about public drunkenness. This is also when winemakers in the Armagnac region of southwest France began to distill their wine into spoilage-resistant brandy for shipping to northern Europe. Gin, a whisky-like medicinal concoction from rye, with juniper added for its flavor and diuretic effect, was first formulated in 16th century Holland. The renowned brandy of France's Cognac, just to the north of Bordeaux, arose around 1620. Rum was first made from mola.s.ses in the English West Indies around 1630, and monastic liqueurs like Benedictine and Chartreuse date from about 1650 on. that meant "burning" or "burnt" wine, appear in German laws about public drunkenness. This is also when winemakers in the Armagnac region of southwest France began to distill their wine into spoilage-resistant brandy for shipping to northern Europe. Gin, a whisky-like medicinal concoction from rye, with juniper added for its flavor and diuretic effect, was first formulated in 16th century Holland. The renowned brandy of France's Cognac, just to the north of Bordeaux, arose around 1620. Rum was first made from mola.s.ses in the English West Indies around 1630, and monastic liqueurs like Benedictine and Chartreuse date from about 1650 on.

Over the next couple of centuries, the drinkability of spirits improved as distillers learned how to refine their composition. First came double distillation, in which a wine or beer is distilled, and the distillate then distilled a second time; then in the late 18th and early 19th centuries came ingenious French and English column stills, which produce alcohols of greater purity in one continuous process. The growing availability and drinkability of distilled liquors meant that addiction became a serious problem, particularly among the urban populations of the Industrial Revolution. In England the princ.i.p.al scourge was cheap gin, which the average Londoner in the late 18th century consumed at the rate of nearly a pint/400 ml a day "to seek relief in the temporary oblivion of his own misery," as Charles d.i.c.kens later wrote in Sketches by Boz. Sketches by Boz. Government control of production and social progress later moderated the problem of alcohol addiction, but hasn't eliminated it. Government control of production and social progress later moderated the problem of alcohol addiction, but hasn't eliminated it.

Food Words: Distill DistillThe word distill distill comes from the Latin comes from the Latin destillare, destillare, "to drip." It thus captures the moment at which the barely visible vapors from a hot liquid condense and rematerialize on a cool surface. "to drip." It thus captures the moment at which the barely visible vapors from a hot liquid condense and rematerialize on a cool surface.

Whiskey in America Distilled alcohol was so popular in North America that it gave us an enduring legacy: the Internal Revenue Service! In the early days of the colonies and then the United States, mola.s.ses was more plentiful than barley, and rum more common than beer. Rye and barley spirits were also being distilled in the northern colonies by 1700, and Kentuckycorn whiskey by 1780. After the Revolutionary War, the new American government tried to raise revenues for its war debts by taxing distillation, and in 1794 the largely Scots-Irish region of western Pennsylvania rose in the short-lived Whiskey Rebellion. When President Washington called out federal troops to put it down, the rebellion went underground and "moon-shining" became entrenched, especially in the poor hills of the South where the small amount of corn that could be grown would fetch a better price if fermented and distilled. This evasion led the federal government to form the Office of Internal Revenue in 1862. Sixty years later, the national taste for hard liquor was an important stimulus to the temperance movement that culminated in Prohibition. Distilled alcohol was so popular in North America that it gave us an enduring legacy: the Internal Revenue Service! In the early days of the colonies and then the United States, mola.s.ses was more plentiful than barley, and rum more common than beer. Rye and barley spirits were also being distilled in the northern colonies by 1700, and Kentuckycorn whiskey by 1780. After the Revolutionary War, the new American government tried to raise revenues for its war debts by taxing distillation, and in 1794 the largely Scots-Irish region of western Pennsylvania rose in the short-lived Whiskey Rebellion. When President Washington called out federal troops to put it down, the rebellion went underground and "moon-shining" became entrenched, especially in the poor hills of the South where the small amount of corn that could be grown would fetch a better price if fermented and distilled. This evasion led the federal government to form the Office of Internal Revenue in 1862. Sixty years later, the national taste for hard liquor was an important stimulus to the temperance movement that culminated in Prohibition.

Recent Times: The Rise of the c.o.c.ktail It was in the 19th century that mixtures of distilled and other alcohols, or c.o.c.ktails, became fashionable before-dinner drinks in Europe and the Americas. This development led to a mind-numbing explosion of inventiveness: bartenders' manuals now list hundreds of different named c.o.c.ktails. The origins of the preeminent c.o.c.ktail, the martini (gin and vermouth), are disputed; it may have been invented several times in different places. The gin and tonic comes from British India, where gin helped make antimalarial quinine water more palatable. In the United States, one of the first famous mixed drinks was the sazerac of New Orleans (brandy and bitters), while Winston Churchill's mother is said to have incited the creation of the manhattan (whiskey, vermouth, bitters) at a New York club. Prohibition and harsh "bathtub gin" slowed further progress from 1920 to 1934. In the 1950s, mixologists discovered the value of vodka as a largely flavorless alcohol, and the appeal of sweet-tart fruit juices and sweet liqueurs. Over the next few decades they concocted such broadly popular drinks as the mai tai, pina colada, screwdriver, daiquiri, margarita, and tequila sunrise. In the 1970s, vodka dethroned whiskey as America's best-selling spirit. It was in the 19th century that mixtures of distilled and other alcohols, or c.o.c.ktails, became fashionable before-dinner drinks in Europe and the Americas. This development led to a mind-numbing explosion of inventiveness: bartenders' manuals now list hundreds of different named c.o.c.ktails. The origins of the preeminent c.o.c.ktail, the martini (gin and vermouth), are disputed; it may have been invented several times in different places. The gin and tonic comes from British India, where gin helped make antimalarial quinine water more palatable. In the United States, one of the first famous mixed drinks was the sazerac of New Orleans (brandy and bitters), while Winston Churchill's mother is said to have incited the creation of the manhattan (whiskey, vermouth, bitters) at a New York club. Prohibition and harsh "bathtub gin" slowed further progress from 1920 to 1934. In the 1950s, mixologists discovered the value of vodka as a largely flavorless alcohol, and the appeal of sweet-tart fruit juices and sweet liqueurs. Over the next few decades they concocted such broadly popular drinks as the mai tai, pina colada, screwdriver, daiquiri, margarita, and tequila sunrise. In the 1970s, vodka dethroned whiskey as America's best-selling spirit.

The late 20th century brought a modest revival of interest in the more austere cla.s.sic c.o.c.ktails, and in fine distilled spirits of all kinds, mixed with nothing more than water.

Food Words: Alcohol AlcoholOur word alcohol alcohol comes from medieval Arab alchemy, which strongly influenced Western science and gave it several other important terms, including comes from medieval Arab alchemy, which strongly influenced Western science and gave it several other important terms, including chemistry, alkali, chemistry, alkali, and and algebra. algebra. To the Arabs, To the Arabs, al kohl al kohl was the dark powder of the metal antimony, which women used to darken their eyelids. By a process of generalization, it came to mean any fine powder, and then for the essence of any material. was the dark powder of the metal antimony, which women used to darken their eyelids. By a process of generalization, it came to mean any fine powder, and then for the essence of any material. Alcohol Alcohol was first used to mean the essence of wine itself by the 16th-century German alchemist Paracelsus. was first used to mean the essence of wine itself by the 16th-century German alchemist Paracelsus.

Making Distilled Alcohols All distilled alcohols are made in basically the same way.

Fruits, grains, or other sources of carbohydrates are fermented with yeasts to make a liquid with a moderate alcohol content, from 5 to 12% by volume.

This liquid is heated in a chamber that collects the alcohol-and aroma-rich vapors as they escape from the boiling liquid, and then pa.s.ses them across cooler metal surfaces, where the vapors condense and are collected as a separate liquid.

The concentrated alcoholic liquid is then modified in various ways for consumption. It may be flavored with herbs or spices, or aged in wood barrels. The alcohol content is usually adjusted with the addition of water before it's bottled for sale.

The Distilling Process The essential principle of distillation is a simple one: both alcohol and aromatic substances are more volatile in water than water itself, so they evaporate in disproportionate amounts from wine and beer and become concentrated in the vapor. But it's not a simple matter to make a delicious distilled alcohol, or even a drinkable one. Yeast fermentation produces thousands of volatile substances, and not all of them are desirable. Some are unpleasant, and others, notably methanol, are dangerously toxic. The essential principle of distillation is a simple one: both alcohol and aromatic substances are more volatile in water than water itself, so they evaporate in disproportionate amounts from wine and beer and become concentrated in the vapor. But it's not a simple matter to make a delicious distilled alcohol, or even a drinkable one. Yeast fermentation produces thousands of volatile substances, and not all of them are desirable. Some are unpleasant, and others, notably methanol, are dangerously toxic.