[148] As, judging by the experiments. .h.i.therto made, cocain seems to consist of two atoms in juxta-position, there is reason to conjecture that it is destined to be the source of a large number of products of transformation. It is highly probable, as Wohler has remarked, that cocain may yet be _artificially_ made by a mixture of hygrin with Benzoic acid, or rather with one of the substances forming part of the Benzoyle group.

[149] See Von Tschudi _ut supra_, vol. ii. 309.

[150] I append here the most important points on which information is sought respecting the climatic and other conditions of the various Cinchona species as cultivated in South America, concerning which Dr.

Junghuhn needed more correct information, and can but express the hope, that, should curiosity or destiny lead the steps of any one of my more earnest readers to Peru, he may succeed by his own observation in solving these questions, my inability to aid more effectively in which has been to me a source of deep mortification. The learned naturalist of Java furnished me with the following particulars:--

"What it behoves us especially to ascertain, respecting which Ha.s.skarl has observed nothing, and Weddell furnishes no accurate information, is comprised in the following questions:

1. What are the highest and lowest limits of the _Cinchona Calisaya_, or at all events, what is the alt.i.tude of the region in which it most abounds?

2. What is the unvarying warmth of the soil, as observed at a depth of 5 feet below the surface?

3. On what soil does it grow most abundantly and luxuriantly? Does it affect rich black mould, in moist forcing soils, or rather dry, stony, barren soils? Does it grow on steep acclivities, or does it seem to prefer gentle slopes or level ground? Can specimens of the soil be procured? What is the description of the rock formation, trachytic, granitic, or gneiss, or are slate or sandstone the characteristic formations?

4. What are the general meteorological conditions, and what is the annual amount of rain-fall? For how many and during what months does it rain, and during what period of the day are the showers heaviest? Does it rain for months at a time, and for how many, and during what months? Or does it not rain at all, in which case is its place supplied by regular afternoon storms? How many days of rain are there in the rainy season of that particular region of the tropical zone? Are the nights and forenoons, as in Java, usually clear until noon? Is it known whether observations have ever been made by the Spanish Creoles as to the amount and duration of the rain-fall? A correct knowledge of the amount of moisture and rain-fall of the Calisaya district is of special importance to all engaged in the cultivation of that plant. Further, frequent observations must be made with the psychrometer in the morning before sunrise, between nine and ten o'clock, at the hour of maximum of temperature, and in the evening, in the forest and in the open ground, that these may afterwards be compared with mine in Java.

5. Does the Calisaya prefer the deepest shadows of the forest, does it grow there quite apart from other trees, or is it more frequently found in the open s.p.a.ces where it is warmed by the sun's rays, such places being usually rather clear of trees? Does it grow solitary, or is it found in groups or cl.u.s.ters, and are its special peculiarities in this respect observable in every forest? Is it observed to be more numerous towards the edge of the forest, and does it evince a tendency to extend thence over the gra.s.s, the drift, the plateaux, &c., and what alterations do these make in its habits?

6. Information is wanted as to the month in which the Calisaya blossoms, and that in which the fruit ripens, as also what length of time usually elapses between the first appearance of the buds and the shedding of the _corolla_, and from the shedding of the _corolla_ to the bursting, i. e.

the complete maturity of the capsules. It would seem that in Java it takes a much longer time, as also that it blossoms at an entirely different season from that in which it blossoms in its native regions.

7. Much anxiety is felt as to whether it is possible to ascertain with accuracy how many years old, as also what are the usual height and the diameter (at the base of the trunk) of a Calisaya tree, when it first begins to blossom, and whether these first blossoms are developed into ripe fruit, with seeds capable of fertilization.

8. How high, how thick, and how old are--

_a._ The youngest and smallest, and

_b._ The largest and oldest,

Calisaya trees, which are now felled for their bark in South America? What description of bark is the most prized, that from the young and slender, or that from the larger and older trees? Also whether the bark of a very young tree, e. g. four years old, contain thus early the active principle, genuine?

9. As, judging by appearances, it has been rightly a.s.sumed that the bark of any given description of Cinchona is found to be more abundantly provided with alkaloid, especially quinine, the greater the elevation above the sea, and becomes impoverished in these respects in proportion as a lower level and a warmer climate are reached, it is desirable that special observations should be made for the elucidation of these particulars.

10. It is desirable information should be got from the China bark collectors (Cascarilleros) of Peru, as to the natural foes of the Cinchona plant, especially C. Calisaya, and it appears likewise important to ascertain whether the Calisaya is there also liable to be injured and bored into by mites and other noxious insects.

11. It is highly desirable that all the above recommended observations made respecting Cinchona Calisaya, may also be applied to _all other_ species of Cinchona that may occur in South America, of which those ranking next in interest and importance to us in Java, and which have been planted here, are C. _Condaminea, var. luc.u.maefolia_, _laurifolia_, _lanceolata_, as also C. _cordifolia_, C. _ovata_, and _var.

erythroderma_.

12. Is the pure red China bark actually obtained from the C. _ovata, var.

erythroderma_ of Weddell, as would appear from an article by Howard in "the Pharmaceutical Journal for October, 1856?" The leaves of that variety have the most resemblance to those of the three young trees brought over, which we now possess in Java, and which I have spoken of as _Cinchona cordifolia_.

13. The experiments in acclimatization of the above-named species in Java, especially in Western Java, which, it must be admitted, has a very much more moist, rainy climate than Peru, and still more so than Southern Bolivia, where the Calisaya chiefly grows, have already undergone several phases, and it has successfully struggled with numerous obstacles, some natural, others the result of failures of the earliest cultivators. The species named C. _Condaminea, var. luc.u.maefolia_, has shown itself more susceptible of being acclimatized than the C. _Calisaya_, and at present (May, 1858) promises to produce from 50,000 to 70,000 ripe fruit, within a few weeks, all fit for reproduction. Apparently the climate and other physical conditions of the locality in Java, where the cultivation has been carried on, have corresponded with those natural conditions which enable this plant to grow so abundantly in its native soil of Peru."

[151] The name dates from the time when what is now Bolivia (in the forest of which the China tree chiefly grows) formed an integral portion of Peru, and was in fact called Upper Peru, whereas from that which is now called Peru, hardly any bark is exported, while that found in New Granada and Ecuador, whence it is exported to Spain under the name of Pitaya, is a species of very inferior quality for medicinal purposes.

[152] The name, Countess' powder, which was given to the drug owing to its use by a certain Countess Chinchon (wife of a Peruvian viceroy), was afterwards altered to Cardinal's or Jesuit's powder, in consequence of the Procurator-general of the order of Jesus, Cardinal de Lugo, having, during his pa.s.sage through France, everywhere made known the virtues of the drug, and recommended it to the particular attention of Cardinal Mazarin, as the brethren of the order had begun to drive quite a lucrative trade in South American China bark, which they had carried on by their missionaries. V.

Humboldt's "_Ansichten der Natur_," third edition, 1849, vol. ii. p. 372.

[153] See Humboldt's Ansichten der Natur. Third edition. 1849. Vol. ii. p.

319.

[154] Senor Emilio Escobar of Lima sent me a small flask of a hitherto little-known vegetable stuff, which gives very much the same dye as the cochineal insect, and is found in great abundance throughout Peru. I have added this bottle of dye, which at all events merits more minute investigation, to the other collections of the _Novara_ Expedition.

[155] In 1859, there were forwarded, according to official doc.u.ments:

From From Aspinwall Panama to to Panama. Aspinwall. Totals.

Pa.s.sengers 23,206 16,567 39,773

Bullion 3,146,983 57,097,061 60,244,044

Mail parcels of the U.S. pounds 643,752 184,395 828,147

" " England " 47,060 8,824 55,884

Merchandise tons 17,278 3,802 21,080

Coal. " 7,618 ------ 7,618

Personal baggage pounds 67,698 62,581 130,279

[156] The cost of keeping in repair is not less than 100,000 per annum, owing to the destroying energies of the atmosphere and of insects, as also of the rapid growth of vegetation, to keep which under employs not less than 3000 labourers.

[157] The statistics of mortality among the various races on the Isthmus for the year 1858 give the following results.

Of the natives, there die annually 1 in 50 " immigrant negroes 1 in 40 " Coolies 1 in 40 " Europeans 1 in 30 " Chinese 1 in 10

[Ill.u.s.tration: The Austrian Eagle]

XXIII.

From Gibraltar to Trieste.

From 7th to 26th August, 1859.

First circ.u.mstantial details of the War of 1859.--Alterations in Gibraltar since our previous visit.--Science and Warfare.-- Voyage through the Mediterranean.--Messina.--The _Novara_ taken in tow by the War-steamer _Lucia_.--Gravosa.--Ragusa.--Arrival of H.I.H. the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian at Gravosa.-- Presentation of the Staff.--Banquet on board the screw-corvette _Dandolo_.--Pola.--Roman Amphitheatre.--Porta Aurea.--Triumphal return to Trieste.--Retrospect of the achievements and general scientific results of the Expedition.--Concluding Remarks.

Eighty-two days elapsed between the departure of the _Novara_ from Valparaiso and her arrival in the harbour of Gibraltar. They had been as many days of dreadful trial and disaster for our country! While the good ship was careering along in mid ocean, and in an unusually short s.p.a.ce of time had sailed over 10,600 nautical miles, the fortune of arms had gone against our House, and we now heard for the first time of the desperate battles, the heavy losses, the sudden armistice of Villafranca! The Commodore at once telegraphed to Trieste the news of our arrival, and asked for further instructions.

Among our friends and acquaintances at Gibraltar many changes and alterations had taken place. The former Governor, Sir James Ferguson, had in the interim been replaced by Sir W. Codrington. The Austrian Consul, the estimable Mr. Longlands Cowell, was dead, and in his stead Mr. Frembly attended provisionally to the duties of the office.

The heads of the community, the Governor, the staff, Mr. Creswell, Postmaster-General, Mr. Frembly, &c., paid us marked attention on our present visit. Singular to say, no one here seemed to be aware of our having been declared neutral by most of the European powers, thanks to the far-sighted circ.u.mspection of the projector of the voyage, and consequently some apprehension had been felt lest some warships of the enemy might have encountered the _Novara_ in American waters. But albeit of late years we have been pretty well accustomed to see even written treaties trodden underfoot, yet, in the present instance, the capture of the _Novara_ had been stringently prohibited to all French cruisers. For even in the Tuileries the consequences of such an abuse of power had been well foreseen; it was felt moreover even there, that in our time the most powerful can no longer dispense with science or disregard its interests, that any violence offered to her votaries is an outrage upon mankind and civilization. So great, indeed, was the anxiety felt at Paris to avoid any possible collision with the _Novara_, that in addition to the existing declaration of neutrality, special orders were dispatched by the French Government, and from amid the din of battle and the thunder of artillery, the word went forth: "The _Novara_ may proceed unmolested, for she is freighted with scientific treasures, and science is the common benefit of all nations!"

On 7th of August, a telegraphic dispatch was received in the course of the morning from the Lord High Admiral, with instructions for the _Novara_ to proceed under sail to Messina, where a war-steamer would be in waiting to take us in tow. The same afternoon we weighed anchor on our way up the Mediterranean.