"most important factor...": Mayer 1973a. "The development of obesity...": Mayer 1968:83.

"It is a common observation...": Rony 1940:80.

"For a long period...": Mayer 1965.

Mayer's observations on exercise and weight control: Mayer 1968:6984 ("necessarily," 69). "If exercise is decreased...": Quoted in Galton 1961.

Mayer's rat study: Mayer et al. 1954. West Bengal study: Mayer et al. 1956. Footnote. "J. Mayer has since...": Mayer and Thomas 1967.

As John Garrow noted: Garrow 1978:4849. "too little": IOM 2002:884.

"As much as Dr. Mayer...": Glenn 1965.

"false idea..." and "facts overwhelmingly demonstrate...": Mayer 1968:69.

Mayer primary author of Health Service report: Brody 1966.

"The successful treatment...": Anon. 1969:54. "make weight melt...": Mayer and Goldberg 1984. "contrary to popular belief...": Mayer and Goldberg 1983.

"While it is general y agreed...": Gilmore 1977. Seventeen thousand Harvard alumni: Paffenbarger et al. 1978. Exercisers smoke less, attend more to diet: See, for instance, Chave et al. 1978.

"Diligent exercisers...": Cohn 1980. Brody said exercise "the key": Brody 1983a. "essential" to weight-loss program: Beck 1990. "when exercise isn't enough...": Stockton 1989.

Bjorntorp reported: Bjorntorp 1976. NIH conference report: Rodin 1979 ("the importance of exercise...", 57). Pi-Sunyer reviewed the evidence: Segal and Pi-Sunyer 1989. Danish investigators: Janssen et al. 1989.

Male rats and exercise: Thomas and Mil er 1958. Mayer's rats on motorized treadmil : Mayer et al. 1954. The use of shock grids, rats retired from exercise programs: Stern and Lowney 1986.

Hamsters and gerbils: Sclafani 1981a ("permanent increases").

"When surveying the scientific literature...": Stern and Lowney 1986.

Ninety minutes of moderate activity: Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee 2005.

Finnish review: Fogelholm and Kukkonen-Harjula 2000.

"enemies of exercise" and "pseudo-science": Mayer 1969.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN:.

PARADOXES.

Epigraph. "The literature on obesity...": Bruch 1957:19.

"Those who consume more...": Burros 2004a. "chronic condition...": Stunkard 1973:32.

Hirsch's alternative hypotheses: Hirsch 1985.

"for the vast majority...": USDHHS 2001:1.

Fat deposition different in men and women: See Bauer 1941. "The energy conception...": Grafe 1933:148.

"similarity may be as striking...": Bruch 1957:150. "It is genetics...": Friedman 2004. "Infants born to diabetic mothers...": Select Committee 1976:137 38.

Sheldon commented: Sheldon and Stevens 1942 ("It does not take a science...," 2; "...emaciated endomorphs," 8).

McGovern's committee in 1977: Select Committee 1977c ("I want to be sure..." "constantly hear anecdotes...," 222).

Sims's studies: Data and observations from these are scattered over numerous publications; the account given here is taken mostly from Sims 1976; Sims et al. 1973; Goldman et al. 1976; Sims et al. 1968.

"marked differences...": Sims et al. 1973. "lost weight readily...": Quoted in Bennett and Gurin 1982:19. "in response to both...": Sims 1976:393.

Bouchard's twin study: Bouchard et al. 1990. Levine reported: Levine et al. 1999.

"Genetic factors...": Bouchard et al. 1990.

Animal husbandry: See Mayer 1968:4546.

"Up until that moment...": Interview, Ingrid Schmidt.

Mayer studied obese mice: Mayer 1968:49.

Tanner and Chambers: Tanner 1869b:22021. Footnote. Ibid.:22223.

The paradox developed: For a history of this era of nutrition research, see, for instance, Du Bois 1936:93125; McCol um 1957:11533. "The amount of information...": At.w.a.ter 1888.

Rubner discovered: Rubner 1982 ("the effect of specific...," 36). For a biography of Rubner, see Chambers 1952.

Benedict and At.w.a.ter's experiments: At.w.a.ter and Benedict 1899.

Von Noorden on obesity: See von Noorden 1907a. "His work contains...": Bruch 1957:25.

Von Noorden on endogenous and exogenous obesity: von Noorden 1907a: 693700.

"The ingestion of a quant.i.ty...": Ibid.:693.

"far the most common...": Ibid.:697.

"an extremely popular...": Rosenberg 1981.

Magnus-Levy had reported: Magnus-Levy 1907:26162. Lean body ma.s.s also increases: See, for instance, James et al. 1978. Footnote. Von Noorden 1907a: 699701.

Metabolic rate: Magnus-Levy 1907:262. "the metabolism of the individual...": Stock and Rothwel 1982:3940.

Benedict's studies of basal metabolism: Benedict and Emmes 1915.

Bruch began her career: Bruch 1957:56.

Bruch published: Bruch 1940 ("The terms used...," 74748); Bruch and Touraine 1940. "Overeating was often vigorously...": Bruch 1973:136.

"excessive eating...": Bruch and Touraine 1940:141. "keep the child...": Bruch 1973:136. "giving up [their]...": Bruch 1944. Footnote. See, for instance, Brownel and Horgen 2004:8.

"perverted appet.i.te...": Newburgh and Johnston 1930b. "various human weaknesses...": Newburgh and Johnston 1930a.

In 1942, Newburgh published: Newburgh 1942 ("endocrine disorder," 105873; "his gluttonous habits...," "without any effort...," 109495).

By the end of Newburgh's review: Ibid. ("it might be true...," 1075; "a more realistic...," 1074; "the secretions...," "She does not resist...," 1079).

"The work of Newburgh..." and "Newburgh answered that": Anon. 1955a.

Fundamental flaw: Burros 2004a. Von Noorden's proposition: Von Noorden 1907a:697. "excess calorie consumption...": USDHHS 2001.

"If eating behavior did not...": Bennett 1987. Big eaters: See, for instance, Waterlow 1986.

Salient question in obesity research: Bennett 1987. Footnote. Ibid.

"is energy balance achieved...": Ibid. "An obese person...": Rony 1940:4748.

"On the few occasions...": Durnin and Pa.s.smore 1967:13233.

"Talking of a man...": Boswel 1992:1086.

We could find two such men: See, for instance, Widdowson 1962. Stunkard's 1959 a.n.a.lysis: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. "Eventual y, calorie balance...": Keys and Brozek 1953:311.

"This procedure alters...": Friedman 2004.

"Theories that diseases are...": Sontag 1990:55. "playable game": Kuhn 1970:90.

Von Noorden sought: Von Noorden 1907a:69497.

"As long as we have...": Interview, Kel y Brownel . "Our culture's apparent obsession...": Hil and Peters 1998.

"why then do we not...": Quoted in Rony 1940:201. Footnote. Starbucks Coffee Company 2006.

Stunkard wrote: Stunkard and McClaren-Hume 1959. Mayer also ridiculed: Mayer 1955.

"Obesity is not a sin...": Mayer 1968:165.

"Fat Americans...": Spark 1973.

"the combination of weak wil ...": Newburgh and Johnston 1930a:212. "It exists in many non-obese...": Rony 1940:63.

Ravussin's basal-metabolic study: Ravussin et al. 1988. The observation in infants: Roberts et al. 1988. "If obesity was only caused...": Ravussin 1993.

"I was shocked...": Interview, Eric Ravussin.

"revolution in thinking...": Whalen 1950. Never embraced this conclusion: See Bruch's comments in Anon. 1955a:12324.

"The literature on behavior...": Bruch and Touraine 1940:204. "Life situations": Bruch 1940:770.

"critical re-evaluation...": Bruch 1957:19. "The efficacy of any treatment...": Bruch 1940:775. "When I began to work...": Bruch 1957:15051.

"adequately established...": Bruch 1957:1112.

"primary metabolic..." and "Studies of human obesity...": Bruch 1973:32.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN:.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.

Epigraph. "The complicated mechanism...": Rubner 1982:8.

Jean Mayer observed: See Mayer 1954:4143. See also Mayer 1968.

"The fact remains...": Brody 1999b.

"Let me state...": Anon. 1955a:111.

"a plethora of calories": MacBryde 1951:657.

"primary metabolic...": Bruch 1973:32.

"separate recognized facts...": Rony 1940:6.

Compared with growing children: Ibid.:4749.

Reverse causation, pregnancy, and weight in animals: Wade and Schneider 1992.

"The statement that primary increase...": Rony 1940:5859.

Studies of the pre-obese: Ravussin et al. 1988; Roberts et al. 1988. See also Ravussin and Swinburn 1992.

"We cannot get away...": Yudkin 1959.

"for most adults...": USDHHS and USDA 2005:14. "There is only one trouble...": Bruch 1957:2526.

If we consume an average: Mil er and Mumford 1966. "It is conceivable...": Du Bois 1936:237.