"Most studies comparing...": NRC 1989:583.

Percentage of obese Americans: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73).

Proportion consistent throughout society: Ogden et al. 2003. Interview, Katherine Flegal. Children not exempt: NCHS 2005:9, 279 (table 74). Footnote.

Friedman 2003; interviews, Jeffrey Friedman and Katherine Flegal.

"toxic environment...": Quoted on Brownel 's Yale University faculty information Web page (http://www.yale.edu/psychology/FacInfo/Brownel .htm).

"Cheeseburgers and french fries...": Brownel and Horgen 2004:8. "improved prosperity...": Nestle 2003.

"risen three-fold" and "As incomes rise...": WHO 2004.

CDC, "attributable primarily...": Wright et al. 2004.

USDA on increases in nutrient intake: Gerrior and Bente 2001: table 1. Chart. Wright, et al. 2004. Footnote. USDA Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion 1998.

"It appears that efforts...": Heini and Weinsier 1997.

Lack of CDC evidence on physical activity: Interview, Wil iam Dietz, director of CDC Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity. No less active at end of 1990s: CDC 2001. $200 mil ion a year: Lichtenstein 1972. 2005 numbers: International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub a.s.sociation 2005. Footnote.

Interview, Mike May, spokesman for the Sporting Goods Manufacturers a.s.sociation.

"exercise explosion...": Gilmore 1977. "new fitness revolution...": Cohn 1980.

Obesity prevalent among the poorest: Bray 1998. NHANES studies confirmed: NCHS 2005:275 (table 73). Stunkard reported: Goldblatt et al. 1965. See also Stunkard 1976a.

Obesity blamed on high-fructose corn syrup: Critser 2003:13840; Bray et al. 2004; Pol an 2006:100108.

"As the typical American diet..." and "If the Pima Indians could...": NIDDK 1995:19.

Russel noted: Russel 1975 ("exhibit a degree...," 66; Fat Louisa, 67).

"Especial y wel -nourished...": Hrdli ka 1908:15657.

Pima had lived as hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists: Aldritch 1966; Audubon 1906; Bartlett 1965; Castetter and Bel 1942; Cook and Whittemore 1893; Cunningham 1996; Curtain 1949; Davis 1962; Dobyns 1978; Dobyns 1989; Eccleston 1950; Ezel 1961; Griffin 1943 ("sprightly," "fine health," and "the greatest abudance...," 34); Harris 1960; Hrdli ka 1906; Hrdli ka 1908; Jones 1967; Rea 1983; Reid 1858; Russel 1975 ("unidentified worms," 81; also mentioned in Audubon 1906:150); Smith et al. 1994; Spicer 1962; Spier 1978; Webb 1992.

"by way of Tucson...": Russel 1975:30.

"the years of famine": Smith et al. 1994:409. "entirely absorbed...": Spicer 1962:14850.

"Certain articles...": Russel 1975:66. Hrdli ka suggested: Hrdli ka 1908:15657.

Women worked as pack animals: Russel 1975:66.

"everything obtainable...": Hrdli ka 1906. "sugar, coffee and canned...": Dobyns 1989:61.

Sioux diet with government rations: Jackson 1994.

According to Kraus: Kraus 1954. Hesse noted: Hesse 1959.

Over the next twenty years: Price et al. 1993. "large quant.i.ties of refined...," "started to carry...," and "Soda pop...": Justice 1994:11617.

"The only question..." Select Committee 1973a:25657. "to some extent a result..." and "many of the poorer individuals...": Dobyns 1989: 100101.

Obesity in the South Dakoa Sioux: Stene and Roberts 1928. Arizona Apaches: Clifford 1963. North Carolina Cherokees: Stein et al. 1965. Oklahoma tribes: West 1981 ("Men are very fat...," 132).240 "An overwhelming majority...": Meriam et al. 1928. University of Chicago report: Stene and Roberts 1928.

"...visit to Czechoslovakia...": Osancova 1975.

Obesity in African Americans in Charleston: Grant and Groom 1959. In Chile: Arteaga 1974. In Trinidad: McCarthy 1966.

In Jamaica: Richards and de Ca.s.seres 1974.

In Rarotonga: Prior 1971. Among Zulus: Slome et al. 1960. Bantu "pensioners": Walker 1964. "Although dietary habits...": Adadevoh 1974. For other studies of obesity in impoverished populations, see Reichley et al. 1987; Seftel et al. 1965; Haddock 1969; Johnson 1970; Tul och 1962:7275.

"It is difficult to explain...": Richards and de Ca.s.seres 1974.

"different only in degree...": Gladwel 1998.

"Such genes would be advantageous...": Diamond 2003. "exquisitely efficient..." and "Your genes match nicely...": Brownel and Horgen 2003:6. "are trying to find these genes...": Gladwel 1998.

"thrifty mechanisms to defend...": Ravussin 2005.

Neel initial y proposed: Neel 1962.

Sickle-cel anemia and malaria: Rucknagel and Neel 1961.

"might have, during a period...": Neel 1962.

"If the considerable frequency...": Ibid.

"a relatively recent phenomenon": Neel 1982. Russel 's disease list: Russel 1975:268. Hrdli ka's: Hrdli ka 1908:18283. Joslin concluded: Joslin 1940.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs studies: Cohen 1954; Parks and Waskow 1961.

Glucose intolerance in Yanomamo: Spielman et al. 1982. "The high frequency...": Neel 1999.

"overindulge in...": Neel 1982.

"The data on which...": Neel 1989. "composition of the diet...": Neel 1999.

"To me, it would be...": Hirsch 1978:3.

"exquisitely efficient...": Brownel and Horgen 2003:56. "conditions of unpredictably alternating...": Diamond 2003.

"paradise for hunting...": Eaton et al. 1988:29. "conspicuously wel -nourished...:" Cohen 1989:96. Footnote. Duncan and Burns 1998:8990,150.

The !Kung study: Lee and DeVore 1968. Lee noted: Lee 1968 ("the third year...," "some relatively abundant...," and "have to walk...," 39).

"levels of decay...": Cohen 1989:86. When hunting failed: Livingstone 2001: 3233. Resiliency of hunting and gathering: See, for instance, Lee and Devore 1968. Studies of human remains: Cohen 1989:10542; Cohen 1987:26185. "the worst mistake...": Diamond 1987.

"a uniquely low occurrence...": Diamond 2003.

Average 150-pound man: Wertheimer 1965. "Survival of the species...": Cahil and Renold 1965.

"facile and unlikely" and "major objection...": Rothwel and Stock 1981: 33536.

"When this animal...": Zimmet et al. 2001.

Schmidt-Nielsen's sand-rat experiments: Schmidt-Nielsen et al. 1964.

Monkeys in captivity: Hamilton and Brobeck 1965. Perhaps 60 percent: Bodkin et al. 1993; Jen et al. 1985. "This is on the kind...": Interview, Barbara Hansen. Footnote. Stra.s.ser 1968.

Mammalian species that fatten regularly: Young 1976 is a good review.

"opening a can of Crisco...": Interview, Irving Zucker.

Genetical y pre-programmed: Mrosovsky 1976; Mrosovsky 1985 ("It is very hard to prevent..."). Lipectomy studies: Mauer et al. 2001.

Regulation of type and location of fat: See Young 1976.

Select out rather than in: See, for instance, Sims 1976.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN:.

HUNGER.

Epigraph. "Khrushchev, too, looks...": Liebling 2004:485.

Benedict's semi-starvation studies: Benedict et al. 1919 (fourteen to twenty-one hundred calories, 68889).

His subjects lost the weight: Benedict et al. 1919 ("a continuous gnawing...," 360; "almost impossible to keep warm...," 259; reduced energy expenditure, 69495; blood pressure, 371; pulse rate, 383; anemia, 36465; concentration, 680; "a decrease in s.e.xual interest...," 640; "the whole picture...," 698).

"One general feature...": Benedict et al. 1919:68385.

Keys set out to replicate: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950 ("guinea pigs," 64; "semi-starvation diet," 74).253 1,570 calories, "The major food items served...": Ibid.:74. Footnote. Ibid.

Keys's conscientious objectors lost on average: Ibid. (body fat lost, 17576; physiological responses, "As starvation progressed...," 82728; "...wise man...," 290).

"behavior and complaints": Ibid.:81953, 881904.

Five of the subjects: Ibid. ("character neurosis," 880; "semi-starvation neurosis," 894; "...psychosis," 880; "weeping...," 885; "he suffered a sudden...,"

887; "...drastic cuts..." "his neurotic manifestations...," 890; fifth subject, 891).

Relaxation of dietary restriction: Ibid.:7678, 84253 ("personality deterioration...," 891.) 255 Last weeks of experiment: Ibid. ("the prodigious level..."

and "though incapable...," 143; weight and body fat, 182).

"conventional reducing diets": Van Gaal 1998.

"persistent clamor...": Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950:835. Dramatic reduction in energy expenditure: See also Grande et al. 1958.

"diminishes proportionately...": Strang and Evans 1929. Observation reported by Bray: Bray 1970. See also Bray 1969; Brown and Ohlson 1946. "There is no investigator...": Garrow 1978:89.

Hirsch's experiments: Leibel et al. 1995.

"al the physiological...": Interview, Jules Hirsch.

"of al the d.a.m.n...": Ibid.

"eating fewer calories...": USDHHS and USDA 2005:13.

Stunkard's a.n.a.lysis: Stunkard and McLaren-Hume 1959 ("remarkably ineffective..." and "only 12%..."). "paradox" and "the widespread a.s.sumption...": Anon. 1983.

"Attempts at weight reduction...": Stunkard 1973.

The Cochrane Col aboration review: Pirozzo et al. 2002. The USDA a.n.a.lysis: Kennedy et al. 2001:419 (table 11). Only one study tracked partic.i.p.ants for more than a year: Jeffery et al. 1995. The WHI report on weight: Howard, Manson, et al. 2006.

"dietary therapy remains...": Van Gaal 1998:87576.

"reduction of caloric intake...": Maratos-Flier and Flier 2005:54142.

Sixty or ninety minutes: USDHHS and USDA 2005:viii.

"while unusual y strenuous...": Wilder 1933.

"He wil have to climb...": Newburgh 1942:1085.

"Vigorous muscle exercise...": Rony 1940:5556. "There has been ample demonstration...": Feinstein 1960:365. Footnote. Wil ett and Stampfer 1998:276.

Romance of Mayer's background: Mayer 1955; Gershoff 2001. Interview, Albert Stunkard.

Mayer extol ing virtues of exercise: Mayer and Stare 1953. "debunked...": Tolchin 1959. "almost nil": Mayer 1953b.

Mayer on high-school girls: Johnson et al. 1956. "The laws of thermodynamics...": Mayer 1968:12526.

Girls at summer camp: Bul en et al. 1964. Infants: Rose and Mayer 1968. "The striking phenomenon..." and "some individuals...": Mayer 1975b:78.

The changing-American-diet story: See Brewster and Jacobson 1978.

Descriptions of typical meals: Mayer 1968:7778. "frequently a.s.sumed prodigious...": Ross 1987:3536. "fish, poultry, or game...": Quoted in ibid. "The 75-cent special..." and "were two or more courses...": Schwartz 1986:91.