Revised edition of Dietary Goals: Select Committee 1977b (avoid overweight, x.x.xiii; "decrease consumption of animal fat...," x.x.xix). Pressure from the livestock industry: Interviews, Nick Mottern and George McGovern.

Attempts to justify recommendations: Select Committee 1977b ("some witnesses...," "After further review...," x.x.xiii; "important questions...," and "Does lowering...," x.x.xvii).

"strong, forceful, competent": Burros 1977. "people were getting..." and "Tel us...": Interview, Carol Foreman.

NAS/USDA contract and Leveil e's speech: Broad 1979a. Handler and Fredrickson responses: Interview, Carol Foreman.

Forman hired Hegsted: Interviews, Mark Hegsted and Carol Foreman.

Report by a committee: Task Force Sponsored by the American Society for Clinical Nutrition 1979. "not to draw...," "ful range...," and "considerable": Ahrens 1979b. "...clear majority..." and production of Dietary Guidelines: Interview, Mark Hegsted. (McGinnis did not respond to repeated requests for interviews.) Footnote. Glueck 1979:2642.

"Avoid Too Much...": USDA and USDHEW 1980.

Toward Healthful Diets: Food and Nutrition Board NRC 1980. "excoriated in the press": Interview, David Kritchevsky. The first criticisms: Altman 1980; Brody 1980. "...in the pocket...": Interview, Jane Brody. See also Wade 1980. Details of industry connections: Broad 1980; Handler 1980. Leaked to the press: Risser 1980; interviews, Carol Foreman and James Risser. "embraced a low-fat diet...": Baum 1995.

House subcommittee hearings: Wade 1980.

Handler testified: Handler 1980.

Nutritionists in academia: Levenstein 1993 (work closely, 13435; "unholy al iance," 188).

Olson explained: Anon. 1980.

"To be a dissenter...": Mann 1977. "...as big a pusher...": Interview, David Kritchevsky.

Jacobson's expose: Rosenthal et al. 1976. "The important question...": Stare 1987. Stamler's funding from manufacturers: Blakeslee and Stamler 1966:x.

Funded by Frito-Lay: Interview, Mark Hegsted.

Honolulu study: Yano et al. 1978. In Framingham and Puerto Rico: Gordon et al. 1981.

"reconciling [their] study findings...": Gordon et al. 1981.

Stamler's Chicago studies: Dyer et al. 1981. Dayton and others: Pearce and Dayton 1971. Swiss Red Cross: Nydegger and Butler 1970. Six ongoing studies: Rose et al. 1974. British, Hungarian, and Czech: Anon. 1978. Study after study: Beaglehole et al. 1980; Kark et al. 1980; Garcia-Palmieri et al.

1981; Mil er et al. 1981; Stemmermann et al. 1981; Kozarevic et al. 1981. Framingham Study: Wil iams et al. 1981. "surprise and chagrin": Kolata 1981.

Footnote. McGee et al. 1985.

Norwegian study: Westlund and Nicolayson 1972. First NHLBI workshop: Feinleib 1981. Second workshop: Feinleib 1982. Levy's comments: Kolata 1981.

Third workshop: Feinleib 1983. "the perplexing inconsistencies" and "not preclude...": Feinleib 1983.

"throw the kitchen sink": Interview, Stephen Hul y. Details of MRFIT: MRFIT Research Group 1982.

$115 mil ion: Kolata 1982.

"...Test Col apses": Bishop 1982. Slightly more deaths: MRFIT Research Group 1982. Footnote. Shaten et al. 1997.

Details of LRC Trial: LRC Program 1979.

Results of the LRC trial: LRC Program 1984a; LRC Program 1984b. "conclusive...": Quoted in Moore 1989:68 (see endnote 278).

"could and should...": Consensus Conference 1985. "It is now indisputable...": Anon. 1984a.

"unwarranted, unscientific...": Quoted in Wal is 1984. "unconscionable...": Quoted in Kolata 1985.

Rifkind later explained: Interview, Basil Rifkind.

"a ma.s.sive health campaign": Levy's testimony in Select Committee 1977d:19. "Sorry, It's True...": Anon 1984a. Time fol ow-up story, including Gotto's quote: Wal is 1984.

December consensus conference: Anon. 1984b; Ahrens 1985; Oliver 1985; interviews, Pete Ahrens, David Kritchevsky, Robert Olson, Basil Rifkind, and Daniel Steinberg. "Many people...": Quoted in Kolata 1985.

"were selected to include...": Oliver 1985. "no doubt...": Consensus Conference 1985. "you wouldn't have...": Interview, Daniel Steinberg.

CHAPTER FOUR:.

THE GREATER GOOD.

Epigraph. "In reality...": Arthus 1943:15.

NCEP 1987 guidelines: Anon. 1988. "The edict...": Thompson and Squires 1987. Nutrition and Health: USDHHS 1988 (two-thirds of 2. 1 mil ion deaths, 4). "exhorts Americans...": Toufexis 1988. "disproportionate consumption...": Koop 1988:iii. "The depth...": Koop 1988: iiiiv. Diet and Health: NRC 1989 ("Highest priority," 13).

Writers of the surgeon general's report: Interviews, Marion Nestle, managing editor of the report, and Nancy Ernst of NHLBI. Writers of the Diet and Health chapters: Interviews, Susma Palmer, program director at the NRC, and Henry Blackburn. Footnote. Interview, Henry McGil .

Jacobson scolding the authors: Sugarman 1989 (includes Motulsky quote); Burros 1989.

Hungarian study: Koranyi 1963. British study: Research Committee 1965.

"...some indication...": Ernst and Levy 1984. A new generation: See, for instance, Rovner 1988.

Cholesterol and sudden cardiac death: Kannel and Thomas 1982; Dawber 1980 ("The lack of a.s.sociation...," 131). 63 Stamler's MRFIT rea.n.a.lysis: Stamler et al. 1986. Chart. Martin et al. 1986.

Whether we would live longer: Ibid. Chart. Ibid.

The Harvard study: Taylor et al. 1987.

UCSF study: Browner et al. 1991. McGil study: Grover et al. 1994.

"They would have liked...": Interview, Marion Nestle. "I am sensitive...": Letter from Browner to McGinnis, Feb 14, 1991. I am grateful to Warren Browner for sharing this correspondence with me.

"...smal or negligible...": NRC 1989:6.

"The ma.s.s approach...": Rose 1981.

"People wil not...": Ibid. "The modern British diet...": Quoted in Le Fanu 1999:307. Footnote. Interview, Wil iam Taylor.

a.s.sumption underpinning ma.s.s prevention: Rose 1985 ("would lead us...," 32; "differences between...," 34).

Unintended side effects, "unnatural factors," and "'biological normality'...": Rose 1981:1851.

"...no time for significant...": Scrimshaw and Dietz 1995.

"nuts, fruits..." and "substantial amounts...": Blakeslee and Stamler 1966: 4142.

a.n.a.lysis of hunter-gatherer diets: Eaton and Konner 1985. Low-fat recommendations: NRC 1989:41.

"made a mistake": Interview, Boyd Eaton. Revised a.n.a.lysis: Cordain et al. 2000 ("would have contributed...," 690). Paleolithic diets high in protein: Interviews, Loren Cordain, Melvin Konner, John Speth, Craig Stanford. See also Abrams 1987; Harris 1985; Stanford 2001; Stefansson 1946.

Histories of the saccharine controversy: c.u.mmings 1986; Merril 1981. Footnote. Interview, Melvin Konner.

Motulsky told the Post: Quoted in Sugarman 1989.

"If the public's diet...": Ahrens 1979a.

Cited in Dietary Goals: Select Committee 1977a:3334. NAS report: Committee on Diet, Nutrition, and Cancer 1982 ("could be used...," 15). ACS low-fat diet: American Cancer Society 1984.

When j.a.panese women immigrate: See testimonies of Ernst Wynder and Gio Gori in Select Committee 1976:164208. Adding fat to rat diets: Tannenbaum 1942.

Higginson noted: Maugh 1979. "difficult to reconcile": Wil iams et al. 1981.

Critical test from the Nurses Health Study: Wil ett et al. 1987. "a good study...": AP 1987. NCI researchers published: Jones et al. 1987. "perhaps because no one...": Marshal 1993b.

Results from eight years of Nurses Health Study: Wil ett et al. 1992. Fourteen years: Holmes et al. 1999.

Greenwald had responded: Schatzkin et al. 1989.

"indisputable" and "a high-fat, high-calorie...": Ibid. "supplemented with" polyunsaturates: Rogers and Longnecker 1988.

Kritchevsky published an article: Kritchevsky et al. 1984. Kritchevsky later reported: Klurfeld et al. 1989. Pariza's similar results: Boissoneault et al. 1986.

"If you restrict...": Interview, Mike Pariza. "overwhelmingly striking...": Interview, Demetrius Albanes.

Neither "convincing" nor even "probable": World Cancer Research Fund and American Inst.i.tute for Cancer Research 1997: 252, 2619. "largely nul ": Interview, Arthur Schatzkin.

ACS guidelines: Byers et al. 2002 ("limit consumption..."); Kushi et al. 2006 ("there is little...," "major contributors...," "diets high in fat...," and "may have an effect...").

Details of the WHI: Ritenbaugh et al. 2003.

WHI results on breast cancer: Prentice et al. 2006. On heart disease and stroke: Howard, Van Horn, et al. 2006. On colon cancer: Beresford et al. 2006.

Elizabeth Nabel stated: NHLBI Communication Office. The accompanying JAMA editorials: Buzdar 2006.

WHO press release: WHO 2006. Basis of the early controversy: Marshal 1993a. Footnote. Howard, Manson, et al. 2006.

Bacon would have cal ed: Bacon 1994 ("wishful science," 59; "stuck fast..." and "...downhil ever since," 84).

"...no dishonesty involved..." and "pathological science": Langmuir 1989. "If you throw money...": Interview, Wolfgang Panofsky.

"Most drugs...": Interview, Richard Kronmal.

Keys, the changing American diet, and the epidemic: Keys 1953. "no basis": Keys 1971.

Keys in the 1950s on j.a.panese men: Keys 1957. The Seven Countries Study: Keys 1980:86; Keys et al. 1994. j.a.pan in the 1990s: Koga et al. 1994 ("

...progressive increases...," "remarkable reduction," and "It is suggested..."). Average American cholesterol values: National Center for Health Statistics 2006.

Keys dismissing misdiagnosis: Keys 1957. "might have been misled...": Keys et al. 1984.

"I've come to think...": Boffey 1987.

French-Italian-Spanish and Australian paradoxes: Powles 2001. Footnote. Guberan 1979.

MONICA details and results: Kuulasmaa et al. 2000. "far and away..." and "whatever the results...": Interview, Hugh Tunstal -Pedoe.

"...cla.s.sical risk factors...": Interview, Hugh Tunstal -Pedoe.

Jacobs visited j.a.pan: Interview, David Jacobs. Cholesterol, stroke, and j.a.pan: Blackburn and Jacobs 1989.

Framingham investigators provided: Anderson et al. 1987.

Most striking result: Ibid.

The NHLBI workshop: Jacobs et al. 1992. Footnote. Hul ey et al. 1992.

Rifkind's interpretation: Interview, Basil Rifkind. Cf. Jacobs et al. 1992.

"Questions should be pursued...": Jacobs et al. 1992.

Feynman's lectures: Feynman 1967 ("...if your bias..." and "...absolutely sure...," 147).83 Meta-a.n.a.lysis: Mann 1990 provides a good review.

Cochrane Col aboration: Taubes 1996; the Cochrane Col aboration Web site (www.cochrane.org).

"reduced or modified...": Hooper et al. 2001.

"A major lesson...": Keys 1975.

"The pooled effects suggest...": Ebrahim et al. 2006.

Evidence indeed suggested: Malmros 1950; Schornagel 1953; Vartiainen and Kanerva 1947.

PART TWO: THE CARBOHYDRATE HYPOTHESIS.