Exercise lowers it: Goldberg et al. 1984; Heath et al. 1983; Huttunen et al. 1979. Weight gain raises it: Anderson, Lawler, and Keys, 1957. Weight loss lowers it: Milch et al. 1957; Jol iffe et al. 1962. Fluctuate seasonal y: Bleiler et al. 1963; Antonis et al. 1965. Change with body position: Tan et al. 1973.

Stress wil raise cholesterol: Frideman et al. 1958. Male and female hormones: Laskarzewski et al. 1983. Diuretics: Ames and Hil 1976. Sedatives: Wal ace et al. 1980. Alcohol: Fraser et al. 1983. 20 to 30 percent: Kritchevsky 1958:181.

"Some works...": Gofman and Lindgren 1950.

One out of every three women: Stone et al. 1974. Rarely die of heart attacks: Discussed in Ahrens, Hirsch, et al. 1957.

Sperry and Lande's research: Lande and Sperry 1936.

Heart surgeons and cardiologists: See, for instance, James 1980; interview, Alan Sniderman. Debakey reported: Garrett et al. 1964.

"...why people get sick...": Anon. 1961. The K ration: Sul ivan 2004. Biology of Human Starvation: Keys, Brozek, et al. 1950.

"frank to the point of bluntness...": Blackburn n.d. "pretty ruthless" and "Mr. Congeniality": Interview, David Kritchevsky. 16 Keys launched his crusade: Keys, Mickelsen, et al. 1950; Keys et al. 1956. Rittenberg and Schoenheimer: Rittenberg and Schoenheimer 1937. Researchers agreed: See, for instance, Quintao et al. 1971.

"a few questions...": Hoffman 1979. "...members of the Rotary Club..." and "a similar picture": Keys 1994.

"fatty diet...": Keys 1994. "Direct evidence...": Keys 1952.

Keys's chain of observations: Keys 1994.

1950 report from Sweden: Malmros 1950. Similar phenomena: See Keys 1975. Keys concluded: Keys 1994. Skeptics observed: See, for instance, Mann 1957.

Keys argued the same proposition: Keys 1953. "remarkable relationship...": Keys and Anderson 1955:189.

Researchers wouldn't buy it: Yerushalmy and Hil eboe 1957. "magic method...": Gould 1996:272.

"...not very profitable game": Mann 1957.

"This causality...": Ibid. 19 "uncritical y..." and "...worse than useless": Yerushalmy and Hil eboe 1957.

Clinical y meaningless: See, for instance, Howel et al. 1997.

Keys insisted that al fat: A good example is Keys et al. 1955.

Vegetable oil vs. animal fats: Kinsel et al. 1952; Groen et al. 1952.

Keys eventual y accepted: Anderson, Keys, and Grande 1957.

This saturation factor: Kinsel et al. 1958; Ahrens, Insul , et al. 1957. "handicap to clear thinking": Ahrens 1957. Fat content of beef, lard, and chicken fat: USDA n.d. 20 AHA opposed Keys: Page et al. 1957.

A new AHA report: AHA 1961. "acceptable compromise" and "some undue p.u.s.s.y-footing": Anon. 1960.

Time cover story: Anon. 1961.

CHAPTER TWO:.

THE INADEQUACY OF LESSER EVIDENCE.

Epigraph. "Another reason...": Friedman 1969:77.

"unmanageable proportions...": Kaunitz 1977. "totality of data": Stamler et al. 1972:45. "two strikingly polar att.i.tudes...": Blackburn 1975.

"It must stil be admitted...": Dawber 1978. "overwhelming evidence...": Dawber 1980:141.

"highest level": Sackett 2002.

"final scientific proof": Anthony Gotto in Select Committee 1977d:312.

Wall Street Journal reported: Bishop 1961.

"dotting the final i": Anon. 1964b. 24 "The absence of final...": Quoted in Blakeslee and Keys 1966:10.

Popper's observations: Popper 1979 ("The method of science...," 81; infinite wrong conjectures, 15).

"each new research...": Keys 1957. Cholesterol and heart disease among j.a.panese men: Marmot et al. 1975.

Navajo Indians: Page et al. 1956. Irish immigrants: Trulson et al. 1964. African nomads: Mann et al. 1964. Swiss Alpine farmers: Gsel and Mayer 1962.

Benedictine and Trappist Monks: Groen et al. 1962. Explained away by Keys: Keys 1963; Keys 1975.

Mann examined the Masai: Mann et al. 1964. The Samburu had low cholesterol: Shaper 1962. "ful y as high..." and "It has been estimated...": Keys 1963.

"feed-back mechanism...": Keys 1975.

Mann's further research: Mann et al. 1972. Masai moved into Nairobi: Day et al. 1976. "The peculiarities of those primitive nomads...": Keys 1975.

"The data scarcely warrant...": Keys 1975. Roseto study: Stout et al. 1964. "few conclusions...": Keys 1966.

Framingham risk factors, "reasonably typical": Dawber 1962.

Cholesterol and women, "no predictive value": Kannel et al. 1971.

Framingham dietary research: Kannel and Gordon 1968 ("promised to be..." 2; "cautionary note...," 15); interviews, George Mann and Tavia Gordon.

Puerto Rico study: Garcia-Palmieri et al. 1980. Honolulu: Yano et al. 1978; McGee et al. 1984. Chicago: Paul et al. 1963. Tec.u.mseh: Nichols et al. 1976.

Evans County: Stulb et al. 1965. Israel: Kahn et al. 1969.

"The human understanding...": Bacon 1994:58.

Western Electric study: Paul et al. 1963.

Stamler's return to Western Electric: Shekel e et al. 1981.

"The new report...": Cohn 1981. "The message of these findings...": Brody 1981d. "The Cholesterol Facts": LaRosa et al. 1990. Footnote. Trulson et al.

1964; Kushi et al. 1985.

Risks of changing the fats consumed: Ahrens 1979a.

Details of Seven Countries Study: Keys 1980. $200,000 support: Anon. 1961.

Results were first published: Keys 1970. Mortality rates: Keys 1980:65.

Three lessons: Keys 1980:33235.

Finns vs. Cretans: Keys 1970:I168. Keys's diet books: Keys and Keys 1959; Keys and Keys 1975.

1984 report: Keys et al. 1984.

"seems to furnish...": Pearl 1940:15.

"A common feature...": Bailar 1980.

Hungarian trial: Koranyi 1963. British trial: Research Committee 1965.

Anti-Coronary Club trial: Christakis, Rinzler, Archer, and Kraus 1966.

"Diet Linked...": Plumb 1962. "Special Diet...": Schmeck 1964. "urged the government...": Anon. 1964a.

February report: Christakis, Rinzler, Archer, et al. 1966. November report: Ibid.

Dayton's Hospital trial: Dayton et al. 1969.

Helsinki Study: Miettinen et al. 1972.

Proponents of Keys's hypothesis: See, for instance, Steinberg 2005.

Minnesota Coronary Survey: Frantz et al. 1989; interview, Ivan Frantz, Jr. Footnote. Frantz et al. 1975.

For background on the HRT episode, see Kolata and Petersen 2002. WHI article on CVD: Manson et al. 2003. On breast cancer: Chlebowski et al.

2003. On stroke: Wa.s.sertheil-Smol er et al. 2003. On quality of life: Hays et al. 2003. For more information, see the WHI website at NHLBI (http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/whi/). Footnote. Hul ey et al. 1998.

"disastrous inadequacy...": Sackett 2002.

1962 NHI grants: Baker et al. 1963. Ahrens's NIH committee: Review Panel of the NHI 1969 ("The essential reason...," 2). "would be so expensive...": Interview, Pete Ahrens.

Task Force on Arteriosclerosis: USDHEW 1971 ("formidable" costs, I-21).

Two smal er trials: Ibid.: I-22.

CHAPTER THREE:.

CREATION OF CONSENSUS.

Epigraph. "In sciences...": Bacon 1994:51.

Roots of this movement: Levenstein 1993:13143, 17894. See also Belasco 1989. "Vil aers in Dahomey...": Anon. 1962. Famines in the 1960s and early 1970s: See, for instance, Devereux n.d. "hundreds of mil ions...": Ehrlich 1968:11.

"enormous appet.i.te...": Mayer 1974a:395.

"world's most essential commodity": Grant 1974.

Argument made by Lappe: Lappe 1971:79. "A shopper's decision...": Belasco 1989:57.

"How do you get people...": Cross 1974. AHA recommending meat restriction: See, for instance, Rensberger 1974; Blakeslee 1973.

"the battle to feed...": Ehrlich 1968:11. Borlaug had created: Easterbrook 1997. "more than any other...": Quoted in Hesser 2006:132.

AHA revised its recommendations: See, for instance, Brody 1973. "including infants...": Inter-Society Commission for Heart Disease Resources 1970.

Manufacturers' programs to educate doctors: Levine 1986:40 ("Listen to your heart," 61). Revised version of Stamler's book: Blakeslee and Stamler 1966.

Polyunsaturated fats can cause cancer: Pearce and Dayton 1971; Brody 1973.

Dietary Goals: Select Committee 1977a ("the first comprehensive...," 1).

"Premature or not...": Brody 1981a:11.

McGovern's Committee and its history: Levenstein 1993; interviews, Mark Hegsted, Chris. .h.i.tt, Marshal Matz, George McGovern, Nick Motern, Kenneth Schlossberg, and Alan Stone.

"...total y naive...": Interview, Marshal Matz. McGovern and the Pritikin Center: Interview, George McGovern. Footnote. Broad 1979b. 46 Mottern's experience: Interview, Nick Mottern.

Mottern, Hegsted, and their perspectives: Interviews, Nick Mottern and Mark Hegsted.

Goals number one and two: Select Committee 1977a:31, 3742, 75.

Notably the AHA: Interview, Marshal Matz.

"The question to be asked...": Select Committee 1977a:3. "al hel ...": Interview, Mark Hegsted.

Levy's testimony: Select Committee 1977b:833. "Arguments for lowering...": Levy and Ernst 1976.

Other prominent investigators: Select Committee 1977b. AMA letter: Select Committee 1977c:67077.