Column C: Base.

Column D: Height.

Column E: Height of tray-base.

Column F: Pump--Capacity in gals. per min.

______________________________________________

Tank.

____________________

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

_____

_____

_____________

______

______

______

30

105

4.9' x 4.9'

4.4'

6.6'

16.71 40

154

5.2' x 5.2'

5.6'

7.4'

18.69 50

190

5.7' x 5.7'

6.4'

8.1'

21.99 75

350

6.6' x 6.6'

8.1'

9.1'

35.18 100

490

7.4' x 7.4'

9.1'

9.1'

43.98 _____

_____

_____________

______

______

______

In order that the water may not drop to one side, the base of the apparatus should be made 10 to 12 inches less in width than the tank.

The size of these apparatus may be considerably reduced by constructing them in the form of closed chests, into the bottom of which air maybe injected by means of fans in order to accelerate cooling (Fig. 66).

CHAPTER VI

LUBRICATION

Lubrication is a subject that should be studied by every gas-engine user. So far as the piston is concerned it is a matter of the utmost importance. The piston does its work under very peculiar conditions. It is driven at great linear velocities; and it is, moreover, subjected to high temperatures which have nothing in common with good lubrication if care be not exercised.

The piston is the essential, vital element of an engine. Upon its freedom from leakage depends the maintenance of a proper compression, and, consequently, the production of power and economical consumption.

As it travels forward and as it recedes from the explosion-chamber, it uncovers more and more of the frictional surface const.i.tuting the interior wall of the cylinder. This surface, as a result, is regularly brought into contact with the ignited, expanding gases after each explosion. For this reason the oil which covers the wall is constantly subjected to high temperatures, by which it is likely to be volatilized and burned. Therefore, the first condition to be fulfilled in properly lubricating the piston is a constant and regular supply of oil.

=Quality of Oils.=--For cylinder lubrication only the very best oils should be used; perfect lubrication is of such importance that cost should not be considered. Besides, the surplus oil which is usually caught in the drip-pan is by no means lost. After having been filtered it can be used for lubricating the bearings of the crank, the cam-shaft, and like parts.

Cylinder-oil should be exceedingly pure, free from acids, and composed of hydrocarbons that leave no residue after combustion. Only mineral oils, therefore, are suitable for the purpose. Those oils should be selected which, with a maximum of viscosity, are capable of withstanding great heat without volatilizing or burning. The point at which a good cylinder-oil ignites should not be lower than 535 degrees F.

Whether an oil possesses this essential quality is easily enough ascertained in practice without resorting to laboratory tests. All that is necessary is to heat the oil in a metal vessel or a porcelain dish.

In order that the temperature may be uniform the vessel is shielded from the direct flame by interposing a piece of sheet metal or a layer of dry sand. As soon as gases begin to arise a lighted match is held over the oil. When the gases are ignited the thermometer reading is taken, the instrument being immersed in the oil. The temperature recorded is that corresponding with the point of ignition.

For cylinder lubrication American mineral oil is preferable to Russian oil. The specific gravity should lie somewhere between .886 and .889 at 70 degrees F. Oil of this quality begins to evaporate at about 365 degrees F. Ignition occurs at 535 degrees F. The point of complete combustibility lies between 625 and 645 degrees F. Oil of this quality solidifies at 39 or 41 degrees F. Its color is a reddish yellow with a greenish fluorescence. Compared with water its degree of viscosity lies between 11.5 and 12.5 at a temperature of 140 degrees F.

Before lubricating other parts of the engine with oil that has been used for the piston, heavy particles and foreign matter, such as dust, bearing incrustations, and the like, should be filtered out. The piston-pivot and the connecting-rod head are preferably lubricated with fresh oil, because their constant movement renders inspection difficult and the control of lubrication irksome. A good, industrial mineral oil of usual market quality will be found satisfactory. In order to bring home the importance of employing good cylinder-oil and of proper lubrication the author can only state that in his personal experience he has frequently detected losses varying from 10 to 15 per cent. in the power developed by engines poorly lubricated.

=Types of Lubricators.=--Among the more common apparatus employed for automatically lubricating the cylinder, the author mentions an English oiler of the type pictured in Fig. 67 which is driven simply by a belt from the intermediary shaft, and which rotates the pulley _P_ secured on the shaft _a_ of the apparatus, at a very slow speed. The shaft _a_ is provided at its end with a small crank, from which a small iron arm _f_ is suspended, which arm dips in the oil contained in the cup _G_ of the oiler. When the shaft _a_ is turned this arm, as it sweeps through the oil-bath, collects a certain quant.i.ty of oil which it deposits on the collector _b_. From this spindle the oil pa.s.ses through an outlet-pipe opening into the bottom of the oiler, and thence to the cylinder. The entire apparatus is closed by a cover _D_ which can be easily removed in order to ascertain the quant.i.ty of oil still remaining in the apparatus.

Many other systems are utilized which, like the one that has been described, enable the feed to be controlled. Often small force-pumps are employed as cylinder-lubricators. Whatever may be the type selected, preference should be given to that in which the feed is visible (Fig.

68).

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 67.--An automatic English oiler.]

If the oil be fed under pressure the cylinder is more constantly lubricated. Pressure-lubricators are nowadays widely used on large engines. It is advisable to add a little salt to the water contained in sight-feed lubricators so that the drop of oil is easily freed.

These oil-pumps are provided with small check-valves at their outlets as well as at the inlets of cylinders. In order that pressure-lubricators may operate perfectly they should be regularly inspected and the check-valves ground from time to time.

The lubrication of the crank-shaft and of the two connecting-rod heads should receive every attention.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 68.--Sight-feed lubricating-pump.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 69.--Method of oiling the piston and end of the connecting-rod.]

Lubricating devices should be employed which, besides being efficient, do not necessitate the stopping of the engine in order to oil the bearings. The foot of the connecting-rod at the point where it is pivoted to the piston is generally lubricated with cylinder-oil which is supplied by a tube mounted in the proper place across the piston-wall (Fig. 69). This arrangement may be adequate enough for small engines; but it is not sufficiently sure for engines of considerable size. An independent lubricating system should be employed, lubrication being effected either by a splasher mounted in front of the cylinder or by a lubricator secured to the connecting-rod by which the pivot is lubricated through the medium of a small tube supplying special oil (Fig. 21). The head of the connecting-rod where it meets the crank, must also be carefully lubricated because of the important nature of the work which it must perform, and because of the shocks to which it is subjected at each explosion. For motors of high power the system which seems to give most satisfactory results is that ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 70.

The arrangement there shown consists of an annular vessel secured at one side of the crank and turning concentrically on its axis; the vessel being connected with a long tube extending into a channel formed in the crank and discharging at the surface of the crank-pin within the bearing at the head of the connecting-rod. An adjustable sight-feed lubricator conducts the oil along a pipe to the vessel. Turning with the shaft, the vessel retains the oil in the periphery so that the feed in the previously mentioned channel in the connecting-rod head, is constant.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 70.--Method of oiling the crank-shaft.]

The main crank-shaft bearings are more easily lubricated. Among the systems commonly used with good results may be mentioned that shown in Fig. 71, in which the half section represents a small tube starting from the bearing and terminating in the interior of an oil recess or reservoir cast integrally with the bearing-cap. This reservoir is filled up to the level of the tube opening. A piece of cotton waste held on a small iron wire is inserted in the tube, part of the cotton being allowed to hang down in the reservoir. This cotton serves as a kind of siphon and feeds the bearing by capillary attraction with a constant quant.i.ty of oil, the supply being regulated by varying the thickness of the cotton. When the motor is stopped, the cotton should be removed in order that oil-feeding may not uselessly continue. Gla.s.s, sight-feed lubricators with stop-c.o.c.ks, are very often used on crank-shafts. They are cleaner and much more easily regulated. Of all shaft-bearing lubricators, those which are most to be recommended are of the revolving-ring type (Fig. 72). They presuppose, however, bearings of large size and a special arrangement of bushings which renders their application somewhat expensive. Furthermore, the revolving-ring system can hardly be used in connection with engines of less than 20 horse-power. Since the system is applied almost exclusively to dynamo-shafts, it need not here be described in detail. As its name indicates, it consists of a metal ring having a diameter larger than that part of the shaft from which it is suspended and by which it is rotated. The lower part of the ring is immersed in an oil bath so that a certain quant.i.ty of lubricant is continually transferred to the shaft.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 71.--Cotton-waste lubricator.]

The revolving ring bearing should be fitted with a drain-c.o.c.k and a gla.s.s tube in order to control the level of the oil in the bearing.

Many manufacturers have adopted lubricating devices for valve-stems, and especially for exhaust-valves. The system adopted consists of a small tube curved in any convenient direction and discharging in the stem-guide. The free end is provided with a plug. A few drops of petroleum are introduced once or twice a day.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 72.--Ring type of bearing oiler.]

The lubrication of an engine entails certain difficulties which are easily overcome. One of these is the splashing of oil by the connecting-rod head. In order that this splashed oil may be collected in the base of the engine a suitably curved sheet-metal guard is mounted over the crank. A more serious difficulty is presented when the oil from a crank-bearing finds its way to the hub of the fly-wheel, whence it is driven by the centrifugal force to the rim. The oil is not only splashed against the walls of the engine-room, but it also destroys the adhesion of the belt if the fly-wheel be employed as a pulley. In order to overcome this objection the oil is prevented from spreading along the shaft by means of a circular guard (Fig. 73) mounted on that portion of the shaft toward the interior of the bearing.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 73.--Shaft with oil-guard.]

The problem of lubrication is of particular importance if the engine is driven for several days at a time without a stop. This happens in the case of mill and shop engines. Lubricators of large volume or lubricators which can be readily filled without stopping the engine should be employed.

CHAPTER VII

THE CONDITIONS OF PERFECT OPERATION

=General Care.=--Gas-engines, as well as most machines in general, should be kept in perfect condition. Cleanliness, even in the case of parts of secondary importance, is indispensable. Unpainted and polished surfaces such as the shaft of the engine, the distributing cam-shafts, the levers, the connecting-rod and the like, should be kept in a condition equal to that when they were new. The absence of all traces of rust or corrosion in these parts affords sufficient evidence of the care taken of the invisible members such as the piston, the valves, ignition devices, and the like.

=Lubrication.=--The rubbing surfaces of a gas-engine should be regularly and perfectly lubricated. The absence of lost motion and backlash in the bearings, guides, and joints is of particular importance not only because of its influence on steady and silent running, but also on the power developed and on the consumption. As we have already seen in the chapter on lubrication, a special quality of oil should be employed for the lubrication of the cylinder. The feed of the lubricator supplying this most vital part of the engine is so regulated that it meets the actual requirements with the utmost nicety possible. In a subsequent chapter, in which faulty operation will be discussed, it will be shown how too much and too little oil may cause serious trouble.

=Tightness of the Cylinder.=--The amount of power developed depends princ.i.p.ally on the degree of compression to which the explosive mixture is subjected. The economical operation of the engine depends in general upon perfect compression. It is, therefore, necessary to keep those parts in good order upon which the tightness of the cylinder depends.

These parts are the piston, the valves, and their joints, and the ignition devices whether they be of the hot-tube or electrical variety.

In order to prevent leakage at the piston, the rings should be protected from all wear. It is of the utmost importance that the surfaces both of the piston and of the cylinder, be highly polished so that binding cannot occur. In cleansing the cylinder, emery paper or abrasive powder should not be employed; for the slightest particle of abrasive between the surfaces in contact will surely cause leakage. The oil and dirt, which is turned black by friction and which may adhere to the piston rings, should be washed away with petroleum. Similarly the other parts of the cylinder should be cleaned to which burnt oil tends to adhere.

=Valve-Regrinding.=--The valves should be regularly ground. Even in special cases where they may show no trace of rapid wear they should be removed at least every month. In order to avoid any accident, care should be taken in adjusting the valves after the cap has been unbolted not to introduce a candle or a lighted match either in the valve-chambers or in the cylinder, without first closing the gas-c.o.c.k.

Furthermore, a few turns should be given to the engine, in order to drive out any explosive mixture that may still remain in the cylinder or the connected pa.s.sages. The exhaust-valve, by reason of the high temperature to which the disk and the seat are subjected, should receive special attention. The valve should be ground on its seat every two or three months at least, depending upon the load of the engine.

=Bearings and Crosshead.=--The bushings of the engine shaft should always be held tightly in place. The looseness to which they are liable, particularly in gas-engines on account of the sharp explosions, tends to unscrew the nuts and to hasten the wear of the bra.s.s, which is the result of frequent tightening. The slightest play in the bearings of the engine-shaft as well as in the bearings of connecting-rods increases the sound that engines naturally produce.

=Governor.=--The governor should receive careful attention so far as its cleanliness is concerned; for if its operation is not easy it is apt to become "lazy" and to lose its sensitiveness. If the governor be of the ball type, or of the conical pendulum type operated by centrifugal force, it is well to lubricate each joint without excess of oil. In order to prevent the acc.u.mulation and the solidification of oil, the governor should be lubricated from time to time with petroleum. If the governor is actuated by inertia, which is the case in most engines of the hit-and-miss variety, it needs less care; still, it is advisable to keep the contact at which the thrust takes place well oiled.

The operation of any of these governors is usually controlled by the tension of a spring, or by a counterweight. In order to increase the speed of the engine, or in other words, to increase the number of admissions of gas in a given time, all that is usually necessary is to tighten up the spring, or to change the position of the counterweight.

It should be possible to effect this adjustment while the engine is running in such a manner that the speed can be easily changed.

=Joints.=--In most well-built engines the caps of the valve-chests and other removable parts are secured "metal on metal" without interposing special joints. In other words, the surfaces are themselves sufficiently cohesive to insure perfect tightness. In engines which are not of this cla.s.s, asbestos joints are very frequently employed, particularly at the exhaust-valve cap and the suction-valve.