For very large engines, the foundation-bolts should be particularly well sealed into the foundation. In order to attain this end the bricks are laid around the bolt-holes, alternately projected and retracted as shown in Fig. 54. Broken stone is then rammed down around the fixed bolt; in the interstices cement wash is poured.

=Air Vibration, etc.=--Vibration due chiefly to the transmission of noises and the displacement of air by the piston should not be confused with the trepidations previously mentioned.

The noise of an engine is caused by two distinct phenomena. The one is due to the transmitting properties of the entire solid ma.s.s const.i.tuting the frame, the foundation, and the soil. The other is due to vibrations transmitted to the air. In both cases, in order to reduce the noise to a minimum, the moving parts should be kept nicely adjusted, and above all, shocks avoided, the more harmful of which are caused by the play between the joint at the foot of the connecting-rod and the piston-pin, and between the head of the connecting-rod and the crank-shaft.

Although smooth running of the engine may be a.s.sured, there is always an inherent drawback in the rapid reciprocating movement of the piston. In large, single-acting gas-engines, a considerable displacement of air is thus produced. In the case of a forty horse-power engine having a cylinder diameter and piston-stroke respectively of 13-3/4 inches and 21-3/5 inches, it is evident that at each stroke the piston will displace about 2 cubic feet of air, the effect of which will be doubled when it is considered that on the forward stroke back pressure is created and on the return stroke suction is produced.

The air motion caused by the engine is the more readily felt as the engine-room is smaller. If the room, for example, be 9 feet by 15 feet by 8 feet, the volume will be 1,080 cubic feet. From this it follows that the 2 cubic feet of air in the case supposed will be alternately displaced six times each second, which means the displacement of 12 cubic feet at short intervals with an average speed of 550 feet per minute. Such vibrations transmitted to halls or neighboring rooms are due entirely to the displacement of the air.

In installations where the air-intake of the engine is located in the engine-room, a certain compensation is secured, at the period of suction, between the quant.i.ty of air expelled on the forward stroke of the piston and the quant.i.ty of air drawn into the cylinder. From this it follows that the vibration caused by the movement of the air is felt less and occurs but once for two revolutions of the engine.

This phenomenon is very manifest in narrow rooms in which the engine happens to be installed near gla.s.s windows. By reason of the elasticity of the gla.s.s, the windows acquire a vibratory movement corresponding in period with half the number of revolutions of the engine. It follows from the preceding that, in order to do away with the air vibration occasioned by the piston in drawing in and forcing out air in an enclosed s.p.a.ce, openings should be provided for the entrance of large quant.i.ties of air, or a sufficient supply of air should be forced in by means of a fan.

The author ends this section with the advice that all pipes in general and the exhaust-pipe in particular be insulated from the foundation and from the walls through which they pa.s.s as well as from the ground, as metal pipes are good conductors of sound and liable to carry to some distance from the engine the sounds of the moving parts.

=Exhaust Noises.=--Among the most difficult noises to m.u.f.fle is that of the exhaust. Indeed, it is the exhaust above all that betrays the gas-engine by its discharge to the exterior through the exhaust-pipe.

The most commonly employed means for rendering the exhaust less perceptible consists in extending the pipe upward as far as possible, even to the height of the roof. This is an easy way out of the difficulty; but it has a bad effect on the operation of the engine. It reduces the power generated and increases the consumption, as will be explained in a special paragraph.

Expansion-boxes, more commonly called exhaust-m.u.f.flers, considerably deaden the noise of explosion by the use of two or three successive receptacles. But this remedy is attended with the same faults that mark the use of extremely long pipes. The best plan is to mount a single exhaust-m.u.f.fler near the discharge of the engine in the engine-room itself, where it will serve at least the purpose of localizing the sound.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 56.--Exhaust-m.u.f.fler.]

The employment of pipes of sufficiently large cross-section to const.i.tute expansion-boxes in themselves will also m.u.f.fle the exhaust. A more complete solution of the problem is obtained by causing the exhaust-pipe, after leaving the m.u.f.fler, to discharge into a masonry trough having a volume equal to twelve times that of the engine-cylinder (Fig. 56). This trough should be divided into two parts, separated by a horizontal iron grating. Into the lower part, which is empty, the exhaust-pipe discharges; in the upper part, paving-blocks or hard stones not likely to crumble with the heat, are placed. Between this layer of stones and the cover it is advisable to leave a s.p.a.ce equal to the first. Here the gases may expand after having been divided into many parts in pa.s.sing through the s.p.a.ces left between adjacent stones. The trough should not be closed by a rigid cover; for, although efficient m.u.f.fling may be attained, certain disadvantages are nevertheless encountered. It may happen that in a badly regulated engine, unburnt gases may be discharged into this trough, forming an explosive mixture which will be ignited by the next explosion, causing considerable damage. Still, the explosion will be less dangerous than noisy. It may be mentioned in pa.s.sing that this disadvantage occurs rarely.

A second arrangement consists in superposing the end of the exhaust-pipe upon a casing of suitable size, which casing is part.i.tioned off by several perforated baffle-plates. This casing is preferably made of wood, lined with metal, so that it will not be resonant. The size of the casing, the number of part.i.tions and their perforations, and the manner of disposing the part.i.tions have much to do with the result to be obtained. Here again the experience of the expert is of use.

Various other systems are employed, depending upon the particular circ.u.mstances of each case. Among these systems may be mentioned those in which the pipe is forked at its end to form either a yoke (Fig. 57) or a double curve, each branch of which terminates in a m.u.f.fler (Fig.

58).

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 57.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 58.--Two types of exhaust-m.u.f.flers.]

It should be observed that, under ordinary conditions, noises heard as hissing sounds are often due to the presence of projections, or to distortion of the pipes near the discharge opening. Consequently, in connecting the pipes, care should be taken that the joints or seams have no interior projections. Occasionally, water may be injected into the exhaust-m.u.f.fler in order to condense the vapors of the exhaust, the result being a deadening of the noises; but in order to be truly efficient this method should be employed with discretion, for which reason the advice of an expert is of value.

CHAPTER V

WATER CIRCULATION

Circulation of water in explosion-engines is one of the essentials of their perfect operation. Two special cases are encountered. In the one the jacket of the engine is supplied with running water; in the other, reservoirs are employed, the circulation being effected simply by the difference in specific gravity in a thermo-siphon apparatus. Coolers are also used.

=Running Water.=--A water-jacket fed from a constant source of running water, such as the water mains of a town, is certainly productive of the best results, the supply, moreover, being easily regulated; but the system is not widely used because the water runs away and is entirely lost. If running water be employed, the outlet of the jacket is so disposed that the water gushes out immediately on leaving the cylinder, and that the flow is visible and accessible, in order that the temperature may be tested by the hand. Apart from the relatively great cost of water in towns, the use of running water is objectionable on account of its chemical composition. Though it may be clear and limpid, it frequently contains lime salts, carbonates, sulphates, and silicates which are precipitated by reason of the sudden change of temperature to which the water is subjected as it comes into contact with the walls of the cylinder. That part of the water-jacket surrounding the head or explosion-chamber, where the temperature is necessarily the highest, becomes literally covered with calcareous incrustations, which are the more harmful because they are bad conductors of heat and because they reduce and even obstruct the pa.s.sage exactly at the point where the water must circulate most freely to do any good. If the circulating water be pumped into the jacket, it is preferable, wherever possible, to use cistern water, which is not likely to contain lime salts in suspension. If river water be used, it should be free from the objections already mentioned, which are all the more grave if the water be muddy, as sometimes happens. The water-jacket can be easily freed from all non-adhering deposits by flushing it periodically through the medium of a conveniently placed c.o.c.k. It is always preferable to pa.s.s the water through a reservoir where its impurities can settle, before it flows to the cylinder. In the case considered, the water usually has an average temperature of 54 to 60 degrees F., under which condition the hourly flow should be at least 5-1/2 gallons per horse-power per hour, the temperature rising at the outlet-pipe of the cylinder to 140 and 158 degrees F., which should not be surpa.s.sed. However, in engines working with high compression, 104 to 122 degrees F. should not be exceeded.

If the water-jacket be fed by a reservoir, it is essential that the reservoir comply with the following conditions:

In horizontal engines the water-inlet is always located in the base of the cylinder, while the outlet is located at the top. By providing the inlet-pipe extending to the cylinder with a c.o.c.k, the circulation of water can be regulated to correspond with the work performed by the engine. Another c.o.c.k at the end of the outlet-pipe near the reservoir serves, in conjunction with the first, to arrest the circulating water.

When the weather is very cold or when the cylinder must be repaired, these two c.o.c.ks may be closed, and the pipe and water-jacket of the cylinder drained by means of the drain-c.o.c.k _V_ (Fig. 59), mounted at the inlet of the engine's water-jacket. In order that the pressure of the atmosphere may not prevent the flowing of the water, the highest part of the pipe is provided with a small tube, _T_, communicating with the atmosphere.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 59.--Thermo-siphon cooling system.]

On account of the importance of preventing losses of the charge in the pipes the author recommends the utilization of sluice-valves of the type shown in Fig. 60, instead of the usual cone or plug type.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 60.--Vanne sluice-c.o.c.k.]

=Water-Tanks.=--The reservoir is mounted in such a way that its base is flush with the top of the cylinder; it should be as near as possible to the cylinder in order to obviate the use of long inlet and return pipes.

This fact, however, does not necessarily render it advisable to place the reservoir in the engine-room; for such a disposition is doubly disadvantageous in so far as it does not permit a sufficiently rapid cooling of the circulating water by reason of the high temperature of the surrounding air, and in so far as it is liable to cause the formation of vapors which injuriously affect the engine. Consequently, the reservoir should be placed in as cool a place as possible, preferably even in the open air; for the water is not likely to freeze, except when it has been allowed to stand for a considerable time. The reservoir should be left uncovered so as to facilitate cooling by the liberation of the vapors formed on the surface of the water.

Circulation being effected solely by the difference in specific gravity or density between the warmer water emerging from the cylinder and the cooler water which flows in from the reservoir, the slightest obstruction will impede the flow. Hence, the cross-section of the pipes should not be less than that of the inlet and outlet openings of the cylinder of the engine. Good circulation cannot be attained if the water must overcome inclines or obstacles in the pipes themselves. Instead of elbows, long curves of great radius, limited to the smallest possible number, should be employed. This is particularly true of the return-pipe extending from the cylinder back to the reservoir. For this pipe a minimum incline of 10 to 15 per cent. should be allowed, in order that the water may run up into the reservoir. The height of the water in the reservoir should be from 2 to 4 inches above the discharge of the return-pipe. In order to maintain this level it is advisable to use some automatic device such as a float-valve, in which case the reservoir should not be allowed to become too full.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 61.--Correct arrangement of tanks and piping.]

The size of a reservoir is determined by the engine; it should be large enough to enable the engine to run smoothly at its maximum load for several hours consecutively. Under these conditions, the reservoir should have a capacity of 45 to 55 gallons per horse-power for engines with "hit-and-miss" admission, and 55 to 65 gallons for engines controlled by variable admission. It is not advisable to employ reservoirs having a capacity of more than 330 to 440 gallons, the usual diameter being about 3 feet.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 62.--Incorrect arrangement of tanks and piping.]

If the power of the engine be such that several reservoirs are necessary, then the reservoirs should be connected in such a manner that the top of the first communicates with the bottom of the next and so on, the first reservoir receiving the water as it comes from the cylinder (Fig. 61).

Intercommunication of the reservoirs by means of a common top tube (_a_) is objectionable; and simultaneous intercommunication at top and bottom (_a_ and _b_) is ineffective, so far as one of the reservoirs is concerned (Fig. 62).

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 63.--Tanks connected by inclined pipes.]

The reservoirs are true thermo-siphons. Consequently the water should be methodically circulated; in other words, the hottest water, flowing from the engine into the top of the first reservoir and having, for example, a temperature of 104 degrees F., is cooled off to 86 degrees F. and drops to the bottom of the reservoir, thence to be driven, at a temperature sensibly equal to 86 degrees F., to the second reservoir, where a further cooling of 18 degrees F. takes place. In pa.s.sing on to the following reservoirs the temperature is still further lowered, until the water finally reaches its minimum temperature, after which it flows back to the engine-cylinder.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 64.--Circulating pump with by-pa.s.s.]

In order to effect this cooling, the reservoirs can be connected in several ways. The most common method, as shown in Fig. 63, consists in connecting the reservoirs by oblique pipes. This is open to criticism, however, since leakage occurs, caused by the employment of elbows which r.e.t.a.r.d the circulation. A less c.u.mbrous and more efficient method of connection consists in joining the reservoirs by a single pipe at the top, as shown in Fig. 61; but care must be taken to extend this pipe at the point of its entrance into the adjoining reservoir by means of a downwardly projecting extension, or to fit its discharge-end with a box, closed by a single part.i.tion, open at the bottom.

In order to prevent incrustation of the water-jacket surrounding the cylinder, a pound of soda per 17 cubic feet of the reservoir capacity is monthly introduced, and the jacket flushed weekly by a c.o.c.k conveniently mounted near the cylinder (Fig. 59). The jacket is thus purged of calcareous sediments, which are prevented by the soda from adhering to the metal. The flushing-c.o.c.k mentioned also serves to drain the water-jacket of the cylinder in case of intense or persistent cold, which would certainly freeze the water in the jacket, thereby cracking the cylinder or the exposed pipes.

In order to regulate the circulation of the water in accordance with the work performed by the engine, a c.o.c.k should be fitted to the water supply pipe at a convenient place.

In engines of large size, driven at full load for long periods, cooling by natural circulation is often inadequate. In such cases, circulation is quickened by a small rotary or reciprocating pump, driven from the engine itself and fitted with a by-pa.s.s provided with a c.o.c.k. This arrangement permits the renewal of the natural thermo-siphon circulation in case of accident to the pump (Fig. 64).

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 65.--Water-cooler in which tree branches are employed.]

=Coolers.=--The arrangement which is ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 65, and which has the merit of simplicity, will be found of service in cooling the water. It comprises a tank _B_ surmounted by a set of trays _E_, formed of frames to which iron rods are secured, s.p.a.ced 1 to 2 feet apart, so as to form superimposed series separated by 1-1/2 to 2-1/3 feet. On these trays bundles of tree branches are placed. The cold water at the bottom of the tank is forced by the pump _P_i into the water-jacket, from which it emerges hot, and flows through the pipe _T_, which ends in a sprinkler _G_, formed of communicating tubes and perforated with a sufficient number of holes to enable the water to fall upon the trays in many drops. Thus finely divided, the water falls from one tray to another, r.e.t.a.r.ded as it descends by the bundles of tree branches. It finally reaches the tank in a very cold condition and is then ready to be pumped to the engine. Birch branches are to be preferred on account of their tenuity.

Great care should be taken to cover the tank with a sheet-metal closure in order to prevent twigs and foreign bodies from entering and from being drawn into the pump.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 66.--Fan-cooler.]

In the following table the dimensions of an operative apparatus of this kind are given,--an apparatus, moreover, that may be constructed of wood or of iron:--

Table Headings-- Column A: Horse-power.

Column B: Volume in cubic ft.