ii. DeVoto (1952), 279, 282, 284.

12. Ibid., 538; Philbrick (2003), 4-5.

13. Bean (1968), 37-39, 43.

14. Ibid., 46, 50; Pomeroy (1965), 12.

15. Bean (1968), a7.

16. Johnson (1992), 16-19; Weber in Milner et al. (1994), 65-67; Bean (1968), 72; Reisner (2004), 7-8; White (1993), 33; Royce (1886), 28. Royce put the non-Indian population at 5,780 in 1840 (p.17).

17. DeVoto (1952), 9-21, 38-39, 290; Cabeza de Vaca quoted in Todorov (1982), 197.

i8. Howard (1998), 15-16; Bean (1968), 77-78; Bancroft (i886), 152-6o.

19. Bean (1968), 87- 20. Howard (1998), 6-9; Federal Writers Project (1939), 15. Hornbeck locates the emergence of the Sierra Nevada in the Jura.s.sic, Cretaceous, and Tria.s.sic periods. Hornbeck (1983), 6.

21. Dawson (1933), 33, 38, 39, 42, 133-34.

Chapter 3. A Continent in Five Easy Pieces.

Epigraph quoted in Smith (1950), 10.

i. According to John Adams's Works, quoted in Royce (i886), 215. See also De Voto (1952), 59.

2. Smith (1950), i5; Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986), iio; Jefferson quoted in Linklater (2002), 56.

3. DeVoto (1952), 390-91, 397; Wilentz (2005), 1o9-io; Hine and Faragher (2000), 136; Goetzmann (1966b), 6-9; Linklater (2002), 156-57.

4. Turner (1920), 165; Meinig (1993), 4, 11-12.

5. "Westering," I learned from Howard R. Lamar, is a fourteenth-century Middle English word, used memorably by John Steinbeck in The Red Pony. Lamar, "Westering in the Twenty-First Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Cronon et al. (1992), 257 6. Cotton quoted in Sanford (1974), 16; Turner (1920), 261; Mill quoted in Saxton (1971),103; Tocqueville (1840),1:26.

7. LaFeber (1965),18-22, 39-41; also Varg (1983), 93.

8. Nugent (2001), 45.

9. DeVoto (1952), 43o; De Voto (1948), 4-5; Lewis and Clark (1953), 287.

io. Goetzmann (1966a), 3-4; Adams quoted in Johansen and Gates (1967),113- 1i. Onuf (2000), 2, 57-8; Jefferson quoted, r5, 45; Stephanson (1995), 21; Merk (1963), 3; Bemis quoted in Hietala (1985), 259.

12. LaFeber (1989), 72-75; Clark (1981), 182; Goetzmann (1966b), 1-2; see also Drinnon (1980), 113. Paul Kramer argues that "expansionism" was a term that "starkly separated" American intervention in the Philippines and elsewhere from European imperialism, but that hardly characterizes the Wisconsin school (Williams, LaFeber, McCormick, Gardner, and others) or Drinnon's work. See Kramer (2006), 15.

13. LaFeber (1965), 96.

14. John L. O'Sullivan, "Annexation," unsigned article, United States Magazine and Democratic Review 17 (July-August 1845): 5-10, reprinted in Sanford (1974), 26-32. "Manifest Destiny" achieved a wider fame with O'Sullivan's presentation in the New York Morning News, December 17, 1845. The swatch of rhetoric here is quoted in Stephanson (1995), 39-40.

15. Quoted in Wilenz (2005), 563. Sean Wilenz emphasizes Manifest Destiny's impulse to spread American democratic values, perhaps with an eye cast on the early years of this century (pp. 562-64).

16. Quoted in Hofstadter (1968), 56-57.

17. DeVoto (1942), 194; Horgan (1984), 757; Goetzmann (1966b), 54; Wilentz (2005), 604. Goetzmann called it 'America's 'forgotten war"' in 1966 (p. 116), when there was "no extended study" of the Mexican War, but that was soon remedied by the scholarship of K. Jack Bauer, Gene Martin Brack, Paul Bergeron, Sam Haynes, Myra Jehlen, Robert W. Johannsen, Robert Leckie, James McCaffrey, David Pletcher, and John H. Schroeder, among others.

18. For a a fuller discussion, see Curnings (199o), ch. 13.

19. Haynes (1997a), 11, 62, 73, 116; DeVoto (1942), 7-8; Wilenz (2005), 570-73; Norman A. Graebner, "Polk," in Dudden (2004), 107.

20. Brewer (1990), xix.

21. Elliott (2006), 272; Weber in Milner et al. (1994), 59; Meinig (1969), 39; Fehrenbach (1968), 269.

22. Horgan (1984), 605-7, 661-65, 670-71, 705; Weigley (1967),173; Meinig (1993), 151; Haynes (1997a), 130; DeVoto (1942), r6; Graebner (1955), 153-54; White (1993), 77-78; Wilenz (2005), 581-82.

23. Pletcher (1973), 374-77,384-86.

z4. Merk seemed to think hardly any Americans died (Merk [19631, 113), but DeVoto notes one battle in Mexico that left goo Americans dead or disabled (DeVoto [1942], 294) and Hine and Faragher (2000), give the 13,000 figure for Americans killed (p. 206).

z5. "Brave, benignant, stupid, as common as your Uncle Bill." DeVoto (1942),193, 284.

z6. Hitchc.o.c.k and Th.o.r.eau quoted in DeVoto (1942), 110, 213; see also 14-15, 488; Hietala (1985), 156-57, 172; Grant quoted in Hine and Faragher (2000), 205. See also McPhee (1993) 5r.

27. Haynes (1997a), ii, 62, 73,116,193; DeVoto (1942), 7-8; Hietala (1985), i2i; Weigley (1967),182; Meinig (1993), 159, 209, 222.

z8. Fresonke (2003), 73; Wilentz (2oo5), 287.

29. Quoted in Dudden (2004), xxii.

30. Quoted in Van Alstyne (1960),152; Pletcher (1973), 386.

31. Benton quoted in Horsman (1981), 90; Fresonke (2003), 76; Lebergott (1984),178; Townshend (1869), 83. For the full text of Berkeley's famous poem, see LaFeber (1989), 67- 32. Smith (1950), 23-25; quoting Benton, 28-29, 32-33. Turner thought that Benton was "the man of widest views of the destiny of the West." Turner (1920), 30.

33. Stegner (1953), 2; Karnes (1970),14-15.

34. Gilpin, Mission of the North American People (1874), quoted in Smith (1950), 37, and Karnes (1970), 136; see also Karnes pp. 96-98. I have taken some liberties with the quotation to pull out the bullets.

35. Gilpin quoted in Smith (1950), 39, and Robbins (1994),175. A world map of this zodiac is in Karnes (1970), 151. See also Slotkin (1985), 220-21; Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986), 331; Graebner (1955), 97-98, 221. One can still find historians who think that Americans occupy boundaries of lat.i.tude wherein "humans are at their most energetic" (Martin [1992], 31).

36. Quoted in Smith (1950), 45-47, and Foley (1997), 21.

37. Hietala (1985), 58-62, 92-93; Fairbank (1969),195-96.

38. Merk (1963), 261, 266.

39. Benton's 1855 speech is reproduced in Dana (1861), 364, 384, 386-87, 389, 392. See also the discussion of Benton and Guyot in Hine and Faragher (2000), z8o; Whitney quoted in Bain (1999), 9, 29; Gilpin's position is in Karnes (1970), 227; see also Russel (1948),11-12; Clark (1981), 11.

40. Graebner (1955), xiv, 2, 218; San Francisco Daily,41ta California, quoted in Pletcher (2001), 1.

41. DeVoto (1942), listing all these technologies and many more, 216-21; see also Ka.s.son (1976), 4j; Bain (1999), 6; Meinig (1993),385-86, 398; Paskoff (1989), xviii-xx.

42. George G. S. Murphy and Arnold Zellner, "Sequential Growth, the Labor SafetyValve Doctrine, and the Development of American Unionism," in Hofstadter and Lipset (1968), 202 (emphasis in original); Schumpeter (1942), ro9; Braudel (1966), 1:23. Paul Krugman recently wrote that economic geography "is almost completely absent from the standard corpus of economic theory" (Krugman [1995], viii).

43. Prown et al. (1992), 96-97- 44. For a delightful and thoroughly researched study of early global news agencies, see Alex Coyne-Nalbach, "The Ring Combination: Information, Power, and the World News Agency Cartel, 1856-1914," Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago (1999) See also Braudel (1995),1355-94.

45. Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986), 91; on the telegraph see Standage (1998), viii, 29-30, 48, 197; also Gordon (2004), 153; Mokyr (1990), 124.

46. Hine and Faragher (2000), 487.

47. Quoted in Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986),192.

48. Hietala (1985), 84; DeVoto (1942), 47-48; Howard (1998), z8-30; Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986), 168-73.

49 White (1993), 8o; DeVoto (1942), 223-25; Lavender (1972), 133-34; Royce (r886), 46-48; Meinig (1993), 130,137. "Comic opera" is from Starr (1973), 5 5o. DeVoto (1942),199-200, 223-25, 229-30, 471; Royce (1886), 49; Philbrick (2003), 341; Bean (1968), 92-94; Hietala (1985), 76. The 49th parallel was established in June 1846 with the Buchanan-Pakenham Treaty.

51. Ken Pomeranz uses this term to describe the impact of Atlantic trade on the United Kingdom and Europe. Pomeranz (2000), 23.

52. Bryant (1947), 236-38, 248, 267-69.

53. Ibid., 275, 277; Wiley (1990), 46; Perry (1856), 5, 75.

54. Bryant (1947), 277-79; Perry (1856), 235, 238; LaFeber (1997), 12. Adas (2006), 2-5; Beasley (1995), 46-47; Thompson (2001), 23-29; Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986),344- 45. The "jingoistic American Geographical and Statistical Society of New York" was also a big lobby for Perry's mission, according to Goetzmann and Goetzmann (1986), 343. Hiroshi Mitani's excellent book lets us see how Perry looked from the j.a.panese side, including his threats of war. Mitani (2006),187-89.

55 Whitman quoted in LaFeber (1997), 24; Perry (r856).

56. Adams (1907), 9o-91; Pletcher (2001), 39; LaFeber (1989), 157; LaFeber (1993),17; Dudden (1992), 24; Seward quoted, 61.

57. There are several accounts of this incident, but the most interesting is the one taken down firsthand by Gale (1972, 310-IT) from an old hermit of Pyongyang.

58. Shufeldt quoted in Drake (1984), 107; Kim (1980), 56-61. The best study of this war (by far) is Chang (2003).

59. Kim (1980), 56-61; Griffis (1888), 412-18; Low and King Kojong quoted in Chang (2003), 1355, 1360.

6o. Drake (1984), 292.

61. Ibid., 296-98.

62. Quoted in ibid., 115-16.

63. See Weinberg (1935) for the nationalist argument, Williams (1959) for the imperialist argument, and a general treatment in Merk (1963). Merk got mesmerized by Americans who wanted to take over all of Mexico after Polk's war began in 1846, devoting much of the second half of his book to this inconsequential sideshow (see pp. 107-200- 64. Th.o.r.eau and Whitman quoted in Fresonke (2003), 128, 134,154; Whitman quoted in DeUoto (1942), 26, 38.

65. Smith (1950), 187; Brockett quoted in Smith, 186.

66. Royce (1886), 119; Horgan (1984), 619.

67. Mathiessen (1941), xv.

68. Stanley W. Trimble in Conzen (1994), 9; Bryce quoted in Meinig (1998), 29.

69. Charles F. Lummis, "The Right Hand of the Continent," Out West (June 1902July 1903), quoted in Gordon (1972), 195-96.

Chapter 4. Manifest Destiny's Offspring.

i. Rawls, "Introduction," in Rawls and Orsi (1999), 3; Bean (1968), 16.

2. Quoted in McPhee (1993), 50; see also Bean (1968), 109, and "James Marshall's Own Account of the Discovery of Gold in California," in Bari (1931), 69. "Thou common wh.o.r.e" is from Shakespeare, Timon ofAthens.

3. Bean (1968), 83-84; Jackson (1970), 16-17; McPhee (1993), 49 4. Bean (1968), 1i1; McPhee (1993), 51; Lavender (1972),155 5. Engels quoted in Hobsbawm (1979), 63; Marx (i857-58), 174-80, 225.

6. Bean (1968), 113-14, 117; Gordon (2004), i8o; McPhee (1993), 55-56; Federal Writers Project (1939), 30; Dawson (1933), 74 McWilliams put the total size of the mining area at nearly 300 miles long and 4o to loo miles in width. McWilliams (1949), 27- 7. Agricola quoted in McPhee (1993), 6o; see also pp. 43, 62, 65; Lavender (1972), 152-53; Royce (i886), 224; Gordon (2004),182.

8. Jackson reported individual hauls of $26,000, $76,000, and $80,ooo (Jackson [1970], 24). See also McPhee (1993), 42-43, 55-56; McWilliams (1949), 26-28; Lavender (1972), 157.

9. Quoted in McWilliams (1949), 55 See also Lavender (1972), 158-59; Taylor (1998), 87- io. Lincoln quoted in DeVoto (1952), 401-2; see also Pomeroy (1965), 76-77. Henry Adams has a brilliant account of Gladstone's and Lord Palmerston's consistent strategy of seeking two American nations, in Adams (1907), 131-53.

ii. McEntire (1946), 74-75; Pomeroy (1965), 264.

12. Freaner quoted in Johnson (1992), 26.

13. Taylor quoted in McWilliams (1949), 37; Rexroth quoted in Brook et al. (1998), viii.

14. Bryce, TheAmerican Commonwealth (1891), quoted in Pomeroy (1965), 125.

15. Brechin (1999), 54; c.u.mings (1990), 99-100, 142-44; Schweikart, Larry and Lynne Pierson Doti, "From Hard Money to Branch Banking: California Banking in the Gold-Rush Economy," in Rawls and Orsi (1999), 215.

16. McWilliams (1949), 31; Bruchey (1988), 73; Brechin (1999), 221; c.u.mings (1990), 8om; research by Charles L. Schwartz cited in Brechin (1999), 355n.

17. McPhee (1993), 43, 65; Gordon (2004), 182.

18. De Quille quoted in Jon Christensen, "The Silver Legacy: San Francisco and the Comstock Lode," in Brook et al. (1998), 95.

19. De Voto (1947),147-48; Pomeroy (1965), io; Federal Writers Project (1939), 34-35 Brown (1995), 247-54; McWilliams (1946), 26. A mild corrective to the characteristic image of the "Diggers" can be found in Phillips (1975).

20. Hine and Faragher (2000), 249-5o; Brands (2002), 316; Kroeber (1961), 43-47 21. Starr (1997), 332, 341; Kroeber (1961).

22. McPhee (1993), 58; Hine and Faragher (2000), 283-85; Deverell (1994),13; Brands (2002), 341; Bain (1999), 91-92; Peirce (1972), 105.

23. Huntington quoted in Hine and Faragher (2000), 285; see also 283-85; Bain (1999), 92-93; Bean (1968), 210-12; Brands (2002), 341; Pomeroy (1965), 96-97; Birmingham (1980),52-53._ 24. Hine and Faragher (2000), 286-89; Bain (1999), 209, 222, 239; Birmingham (1980),54; Pomeroy (1965), ioi; Misa (1995),1-4.