102. Boyer, Medieval French Bridges Medieval French Bridges, pp. 14445.

103. Ibid., p. 125.

104. Bertrand Gille, "Toward a Technological Evolution," in Daumas, I, p. 426.

105. Eugene H. Byrne, Genoese Shipping in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries Genoese Shipping in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, New York, 1970 (first pub. in 1930), pp. 67; Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy The Ship in the Medieval Economy, pp. 14041; Unger, "Warships," p. 243; Frederic C. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders of the Renaissance Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders of the Renaissance, New York, 1979 (first pub. in 1934), pp. 37, 106, 245.

106. Unger, "Warships," p. 245.

107. Unger, The Ship in the Medieval Economy The Ship in the Medieval Economy, p. 145.

108. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders, pp. 20719.

109. Needham, Science and Civilization Science and Civilization, IV, pt. 1, pp. 33031.

110. Neckam, De naturis rerum De naturis rerum, p. 183.

111. Lethbridge, "Shipbuilding," in Singer, II, pp. 58385; Barbara M. Kreutz, "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compa.s.s," Technology and Culture Technology and Culture 14 (1973), pp. 36783. 14 (1973), pp. 36783.

112. Mokyr, Lever of Riches Lever of Riches, p. 46. "The side rudder has often, through ignorance, been condemned as inefficient. Quite the contrary; it is not a whit inferior in performance to the stern rudder (which replaced it only by offering advantages of another kind.)" (Ca.s.son, Ships and Seamanship Ships and Seamanship, p. 224.) 113. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 3031.

114. Ibid., p. 36.

115. Ibid., p. 35.

116. Ibid., p. 38.

117. Richard C. Dales, The Scientific Achievement of the Middle Ages The Scientific Achievement of the Middle Ages, Philadelphia, 1973, p. 34.

118. Stephenson, "Medieval Tinkers," p. 39.

119. Ibid., p. 40.

120. Tina Stiefel, "'Impious Men': Twelfth-century Attempts to Apply Dialectic to the World of Nature," in Pamela O. Long, ed., Science and Technology in Medieval Society Science and Technology in Medieval Society, New York, 1985, p. 188.

121. Dales, Scientific Achievement Scientific Achievement, p. 61.

122. Ibid., p. 125.

123. Lopez, "Still Another Renaissance?" p. 9.

124. John Kirtland Wright, The Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades: A Study in the History of Medieval Science and Tradition in Western Europe The Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades: A Study in the History of Medieval Science and Tradition in Western Europe, New York, 1965, (first pub. in 1925), p. 81; Atiya, Crusade, Commerce, and Culture Crusade, Commerce, and Culture, pp. 23031.

125. Cited in Sayed Jafar Mahmud, Metal Technology in Medieval India Metal Technology in Medieval India, Delhi, 1988, p. 13.

126. Forbes and Dijksterhuis, p. 9.

127. E. J. Holmyard, "Alchemical Equipment," in Singer, II, pp. 73941.

128. E. J. Holmyard, Alchemy Alchemy, Harmondsworth, 1968 (first pub. in 1957), pp. 4553.

129. Husa, Traditional Crafts and Skills Traditional Crafts and Skills, p. 108.

130. Dales, Scientific Achievement Scientific Achievement, p. 37.

131. Stiefel, "'Impious Men,'" p. 196.

132. A seventh-century bishop of Noyon felt it necessary to forbid the practice of addressing the sun and moon as "Lords." (Stephen C. McCluskey, "Gregory of Tours, Monastic Timekeeping, and Early Christian Att.i.tudes to Astronomy," in Isis Isis 81 [1990], p. 13.) 81 [1990], p. 13.) 133. Ovitt, Restoration of Perfection Restoration of Perfection, pp. 4445.

6: THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES: 12001400 1. Christopher Dyer, Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages, Cambridge, 1989, pp. 25060.

2. Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe The Muslim Discovery of Europe, New York, 1982, p. 25.

3. J. R. S. Phillips, The Medieval Expansion of Europe The Medieval Expansion of Europe, Oxford, 1988, p. 105.

4. Ibid., p. 155.

5. Lynn White quotes Ibn Sa'id on Muslims in Spain in the thirteenth century: "Very often the Andalusian princes and warriors take the neighboring Christians as models for their equipment. Their arms are identical...their pennons, their saddles. Similar also is their mode of fighting with bucklers and long lances. They use neither the mace nor the bow of the Arabs, but employ Frankish crossbows for sieges and...encounters." ("The Crusades and the Technological Thrust of the West," in White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, p. 281.) 6. Heaton, Economic History Economic History, p. 129; Husa, Traditional Crafts and Skills Traditional Crafts and Skills, pp. 16263.

7. Heaton, Economic History Economic History, p. 154; Philippe Dollinger, La Hanse, XIIeXVIIe siecles La Hanse, XIIeXVIIe siecles, Paris, 1964; M. M. Postan, "The Trade of Medieval Europe: the North," in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. II, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan and E. E. Rich, Cambridge, 1952, pp. 22332.

8. Faye Marie Getz, "Black Death and Silver Lining: Meaning, Continuity, and Revolutionary Change in Histories of Medieval Plague," Journal of the History of Biology Journal of the History of Biology 24 (1991), pp. 26589. 24 (1991), pp. 26589.

9. F. and J. Gies, Marriage and the Family Marriage and the Family, pp. 22324.

10. Lopez, Commercial Revolution Commercial Revolution, p. 72.

11. Duby, Rural Economy Rural Economy, pp. 8889.

12. Walter of Henley's Husbandry, Together with an Anonymous Husbandry, Seneschaucie, etc Walter of Henley's Husbandry, Together with an Anonymous Husbandry, Seneschaucie, etc., ed. E. Lamond, London, 1890.

13. M. M. Postan, The Medieval Economy and Society: An Economic History of Britain, 11001500 The Medieval Economy and Society: An Economic History of Britain, 11001500, Berkeley, Calif., 1972, p. 101.

14. Duby, Rural Economy Rural Economy, p. 36.

15. Walter of Henley's Husbandry Walter of Henley's Husbandry, pp. 19, 29.

16. The Estate Book of Henry de Bray, Northamptonshire, c. 12891340 The Estate Book of Henry de Bray, Northamptonshire, c. 12891340, ed. D. Willis, Camden Society 3rd ser., 27 (1916), pp. xxivxxvii; R. A. L. Smith, "The Benedictine Contribution to Medieval Agriculture," in Smith, Collected Papers Collected Papers, London, 1947, pp. 10910.

17. Bechmann, Trees and Man Trees and Man, p. 143. In fourteenth-century France, forests had declined from 30 million hectares under Charlemagne to about 13 million; in England forest area fell from 15 percent of total land area at the time of Domesday to 10 percent in 1350.

18. Elton Manorial Records, 12791351 Elton Manorial Records, 12791351, ed. S. C. Ratcliff, trans. D. M. Gregory, Cambridge, 1946, pp. 351, 359, 361.

19. Zvi Razi, Life, Marriage, and Death in a Medieval Parish: Economy, Society, and Demography in Halesowen, 12701400 Life, Marriage, and Death in a Medieval Parish: Economy, Society, and Demography in Halesowen, 12701400, Cambridge, 1980.

20. Bechmann, Trees and Man Trees and Man, pp. 110, 154.

21. Duby, Rural Economy Rural Economy, p. 334.

22. Ibid., p. 357.

23. Harry Miskimin, The Economy of Early Renaissance Europe, 13001460 The Economy of Early Renaissance Europe, 13001460, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969, pp. 3272.

24. Frances and Joseph Gies, Women in the Middle Ages Women in the Middle Ages, New York, 1978, pp. 16869.

25. Georges Espinas, Les Origines du capitalisme, I: Sire Jehan Boinebroke, patricien et drapier douaisien Les Origines du capitalisme, I: Sire Jehan Boinebroke, patricien et drapier douaisien, Lille, 1933.

26. Henri Pirenne, Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe, trans. I. E. Clegg, New York, 1937, p. 187; Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, pp. 9192.

27. Pacey, Technology in World Civilization Technology in World Civilization, pp. 2324.

28. Bertrand Gille, "Machines," in Singer, II, p. 644; Bertrand Gille, "Techniques of a.s.sembly," in Daumas, II, p. 92; Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, pp. 5255, 8590.

29. Penelope Walton, "Textiles," in Blair and Ramsay, Medieval Industries Medieval Industries, p. 326.

30. Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, pp. 16364.

31. Ibid., pp. 5051.

32. Ibid., pp. 5961.

33. Ibid., p. 117.

34. Lopez, Commercial Revolution Commercial Revolution, pp. 13435.

35. Needham, Science and Civilization Science and Civilization, vol. IV, pt. 2, pp. 4045; B. Gille, "a.s.sembling of Raw Materials," in Daumas, I, p. 512.

36. Patterson, "Spinning and Weaving," in Singer, II, p. 207.

37. Ibid., p. 196.

38. White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, pp. 27475.

39. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton Industry Italian Cotton Industry, p. 60.

40. Ibid., pp. 62, 6668.

41. Ibid., pp. 7980.

42. Ibid., pp. 8890.

43. Ibid., pp. 9394.

44. Ibid., p. 95.

45. Ibid., pp. 9899.

46. Ibid., pp. 5153.

47. B. Gille, "Problems of Power and Mechanization," in Daumas, I, p. 457.

48. B. Gille, "Techniques of a.s.sembly," in Daumas, II, p. 98; Maurice Audin, "Printing-Origins and Early Development," in Daumas, II, pp. 62930; Derry and Williams, p. 234.

49. Pacey, Technology in World Civilization Technology in World Civilization, pp. 4243.

50. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, pp. 8485.

51. Elizabeth Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge, 1979, vol. I, pp. 1213.

52. J. and F. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 8586.

53. Ibid., pp. 14043, 86. The change in business organization can be seen in the records of the Alberti company of Florence, which in 1307 employed fourteen factors and two years later twenty, all under contracts specifying salary, duties, and obligations. Ownership and management of the company remained firmly in the hands of three Alberti brothers, succeeded in time by their sons.

54. Ibid., pp. 8687.

55. Bertrand Gille, "The Technology and Civilization of the Medieval West," in Daumas, I, pp. 56869; Lopez and Raymond, Medieval Trade Medieval Trade, pp. 35977; Edward Peragallo, Origin and Evolution of Double-Entry Bookkeeping: A Study of Italian Practice Since the Fourteenth Century Origin and Evolution of Double-Entry Bookkeeping: A Study of Italian Practice Since the Fourteenth Century, New York, 1938, pp. 316.

56. Peragallo, Double-Entry Bookkeeping Double-Entry Bookkeeping, pp. 2229; Iris Origo, The Merchant of Prato: Francesco di Marco Datini, 13351410 The Merchant of Prato: Francesco di Marco Datini, 13351410, Boston, 1986 (first pub. in 1957); Enrico Bensa, Francesco di Marco da Prato: notizie e doc.u.menti sulla mercatura italiana del secolo XIV Francesco di Marco da Prato: notizie e doc.u.menti sulla mercatura italiana del secolo XIV, Milan, 1928.

57. Lopez and Raymond, Medieval Trade Medieval Trade, pp. 23032; J. and F. Gies, Merchants and Moneymen Merchants and Moneymen, pp. 19193.

58. George Huppert, After the Black Death: A Social History of Early Modern Europe After the Black Death: A Social History of Early Modern Europe, Bloomington, Ind., 1986, p. 18.

59. Dyer, Standards of Living Standards of Living, p. 189.

60. Goodchild, "Roads and Land Travel," in Singer, II, p. 533.

61. Bechmann, Trees and Man Trees and Man, p. 153.

62. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, p. 289.

63. Forbes, "Roads and Land Travel," in Singer, II, p. 533; Derry and Williams, pp. 17778.

64. Dyer, Standards of Living Standards of Living, p. 209. Attempts were also made to limit indiscriminate disposal of wastewater and waste matter by dumping in the street. The "Customs of Avignon" of 1243 decreed that "no one shall have a water pipe or pipes emptying into the public street through which water flows out onto the street...with the exception of rain water or well water...Likewise, we decree that no one shall throw water onto the street, nor any steaming liquid, nor chaff, nor the refuse of grapes, nor human filth, nor bath water, nor indeed any dirt...And he who commits this offense, be he head of the family or not, shall pay a fine of two shillings." (John H. Mundy and Peter Riesenberg, The Medieval Town The Medieval Town, Princeton, N.J., 1958, pp. 15758.) 65. Forbes, "Hydraulic Engineering and Sanitation," in Singer, II, pp. 68990.

66. Vita St. Bernardi Vita St. Bernardi, in Migne, Patrologia Latina Patrologia Latina, vol. 185, col. 57072, cited in B. Gille, "Machines," in Singer, II, p. 650.

67. Goodchild, "Roads and Land Travel," in Singer, II, p. 533.

68. Dyer, Standards of Living Standards of Living, p. 191.

69. Goodchild, "Roads and Land Travel," in Singer, II, p. 533.

70. Gimpel, Medieval Machine Medieval Machine, p. 91. In Germany and England, the shutdown took place later, in a.s.sociation with the Reformation.

71. Huppert, After the Black Death After the Black Death, p. 53. According to Robert S. Lopez (The Birth of Europe, New York, 1967, p. 261), in Florence in 1336 there were "between 8,000 and 10,000 school boys learning to read, more than 1,000 studying mathematics and 550 to 600 grappling with literature and philosophy."

72. P. Gille, "Construction and Building," in Daumas, II, p. 526.