5: THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION: 9001200 1. Pacey, Technology in World Civilization Technology in World Civilization, p. 20.

2. Ibid., p. 41.

3. Jones, History of the Vikings History of the Vikings, pp. 295300.

4. Lethbridge, "Shipbuilding," in Singer, II, p. 581: "Were it not for the Norse custom of handing down stories of the lives of some of their prominent men, and their habit of burying their chieftains in ships, we should probably know no more about their widespread voyages than we do of those of their Irish predecessors. It seems probable that the Irish reached at least as far as Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and the Azores...in large, skin-covered boats holding twenty to thirty men apiece. St. Brendan (484577) was the most famous of these Irish explorers."

5. R. Reynolds, Europe Emerges Europe Emerges, pp. 18586.

6. Herbert Heaton, Economic History of Europe Economic History of Europe, New York, 1936, p. 151.

7. Howard Saalman, Medieval Cities Medieval Cities, New York, 1968, p. 114.

8. E. Barthelemy, Notice historique sur les communes du canton de Ville-sur-Tourbe Notice historique sur les communes du canton de Ville-sur-Tourbe, Paris, 1865, cited in Bechmann, Trees and Man Trees and Man, p. 104.

9. Robert S. Lopez and Irving W. Raymond, eds., Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World, New York, 1955, pp. 16284; Joseph and Frances Gies, Life in a Medieval City Life in a Medieval City, New York, 1969, pp. 21123; Joseph and Frances Gies, Merchants and Moneymen: The Commercial Revolution Merchants and Moneymen: The Commercial Revolution, 10001500, New York, 1971, pp. 7582.

10. Gimpel, The Medieval Machine The Medieval Machine, p. 57.

11. Carl Stephenson, "In Praise of Medieval Tinkers," Journal of Economic History Journal of Economic History 8 (1948), p. 29. 8 (1948), p. 29.

12. F. and J. Gies, Life in a Medieval Village Life in a Medieval Village, pp. 1418.

13. Ibid., pp. 12935.

14. Mary Gies Hatch, "De gulzige Waterwolf: Medieval Dikes in Friesland," unpublished paper; Forbes and Dijksterhuis, pp. 14142.

15. Duby, Early Growth Early Growth, p. 187.

16. Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, p. 609.

17. Duby, Early Growth Early Growth, p. 187.

18. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 119; Derry and Williams, p. 253.

19. Bradford B. Blaine, "The Enigmatic Water-Mill," in Bert S. Hall and Delno C. West, eds., On Pre-modern Technology and Science: A Volume of Studies in Honor of Lynn White, Jr On Pre-modern Technology and Science: A Volume of Studies in Honor of Lynn White, Jr., Malibu, Calif., 1976, pp. 16769.

20. Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, p. 610; B. Gille, "Problems of Power and Mechanization," in Daumas, I, p. 455.

21. White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, p. 245.

22. Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, p. 610.

23. E. M. Carus-Wilson, "An Industrial Revolution of the Thirteenth Century," Economic History Review Economic History Review 12 (1941), pp. 3960; Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, p. 611. 12 (1941), pp. 3960; Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, p. 611.

24. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 83.

25. B. Gille, "Problems of Power and Mechanization," in Daumas, I, p. 455; T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, pp. 7981.

26. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 106; Forbes, "Power," in Singer, II, p. 590.

27. Holt, Mills of Medieval England Mills of Medieval England, pp. 3769. Lynn White pictured the water mill as part of the Middle Ages' "humanitarian technology," a "labor-saving power-machine" produced by "an instinctive repugnance toward subjecting any man to a monotonous drudgery which seems less than human." ("Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages," p. 156.) Pierre Dockes, in contrast, regarded it as purely an instrument of exploitation, "above all a way of redistributing income, increasing the surplus that accrued to the masters...It was practically never in the interest of the peasant to use it." Technical progress in general, in his view, was and remains "a by-product of social struggles" and an incidental feature of man's exploitation of man. (Medieval Slavery and Liberation, trans. Arthur Goldhammer, Chicago 1982, pp. 17882.) The truth seems to lie somewhere between the two views.

28. Hill, History of Engineering History of Engineering, p. 58.

29. Ibid., p. 60; T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 65.

30. T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men, Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 63. p. 63.

31. Holt, Mills of Medieval England Mills of Medieval England, p. 133; T. Reynolds, Stronger Than a Hundred Men Stronger Than a Hundred Men, p. 67.

32. Herlihy, Opera Muliebria Opera Muliebria, pp. 9194.

33. Urban Tigner Holmes, Jr., Daily Living in the Twelfth Century, Based on the Observations of Alexander Neckam in London and Paris Daily Living in the Twelfth Century, Based on the Observations of Alexander Neckam in London and Paris, Madison, Wis., 1966 (first pub. in 1952), pp. 14648.

34. Thomas Wright, ed., A Volume of Vocabularies A Volume of Vocabularies, London, 1857, p. 106.

35. Alexander Neckam, De naturis rerum De naturis rerum, trans. Thomas Wright, London, 1863, p. 281.

36. Herlihy, Opera Muliebria Opera Muliebria, p. 95.

37. Lopez, Commercial Revolution Commercial Revolution, p. 160.

38. Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, pp. 4344.

39. Robert S. Lopez, "Still Another Renaissance?" American Historical Review American Historical Review 57 (1951), p. 12. 57 (1951), p. 12.

40. John H. Munro, "The Medieval Scarlet and the Economics of Sartorial Splendour," in N. B. Harte and K. G. Ponting, Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe, Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson Cloth and Clothing in Medieval Europe, Essays in Memory of Professor E. M. Carus-Wilson, London, 1983, p. 13.

41. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton Industry Italian Cotton Industry, pp. 7477.

42. Charles Singer, "Epilogue: East and West in Retrospect," in Singer, II, p. 762.

43. Endrei, Evolution des techniques Evolution des techniques, p. 47; Steven Runciman, Byzantine Civilization Byzantine Civilization, New York, 1956, p. 135.

44. R. Reynolds, Europe Emerges Europe Emerges, p. 226.

45. Chretien de Troyes, Le Conte del Graal Le Conte del Graal, verses 5765ff., cited in Holmes, Daily Living Daily Living, pp. 13334.

46. John W. Waterer, "Leather," in Singer, II, pp. 14458.

47. Lopez, Commercial Revolution Commercial Revolution, p. 126.

48. Harvey, Mediaeval Craftsmen Mediaeval Craftsmen, p. 12.

49. F. Sherwood Taylor, "Pre-scientific Industrial Chemistry," in Singer, II, p. 356.

50. Judith M. Bennett, "The Village Ale-Wife: Women and Brewing in Fourteenth Century England," in Barbara A. Hanawalt, ed., Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe, Bloomington, Ind., 1986, pp. 2036; Forbes, "Food and Drink," in Singer, II, p. 141.

51. Eileen Power, Medieval Women Medieval Women, ed. by M. M. Postan, Cambridge, 1975, p. 59.

52. Duby, Early Growth Early Growth, pp. 19495.

53. R. H. G. Thomson, "The Medieval Artisan," in Singer, II, p. 394.

54. Geddes, "Iron," pp. 17577.

55. John G. Hawthorne and Cyril Stanley Smith, On Divers Arts: The Treatise of Theophilus On Divers Arts: The Treatise of Theophilus, Chicago, 1963; Bechmann, Trees and Man Trees and Man, p. 172.

56. Hawthorne and Smith, On Divers Arts On Divers Arts, p. 97.

57. Nadine George, "Albertus Magnus and Chemical Technology in a Time of Transition," in James A. Weisheipl, ed., Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Toronto, 1980, p. 240.

58. Lopez, Commercial Revolution Commercial Revolution, p. 143.

59. Vaclav Husa, Josef Petrau, and Alena Surbota, Traditional Crafts and Skills: Life and Work in Medieval and Renaissance Times Traditional Crafts and Skills: Life and Work in Medieval and Renaissance Times, London, 1967, p. 152.

60. Pacey, Maze of Ingenuity Maze of Ingenuity, pp. 18, 25.

61. Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture An Outline of European Architecture, Harmondsworth, 1954, p. 43.

62. B. Gille, "Organization of s.p.a.ce," in Daumas, I, p. 530.

63. Pevsner, Outline of European Architecture Outline of European Architecture, p. 48.

64. Henri Daniel-Rops, Cathedral and Crusade Cathedral and Crusade, London, 1956, p. 96.

65. Erwin Panofsky, ed. and trans., Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St. Denis and Its Art Treasures Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St. Denis and Its Art Treasures, Princeton, N.J., 1946.

66. William of Malmesbury, Chronicle of the Kings of England Chronicle of the Kings of England, ed. and trans. J. A. Giles, London, 1889, p. 138.

67. J. and F. Gies, Life in a Medieval City Life in a Medieval City, pp. 14951; J. R. Hunter, "The Medieval Gla.s.s Industry," in Crossley, Medieval Industry Medieval Industry, pp. 14445.

68. Hawthorne and Smith, On Divers Arts On Divers Arts, p. 57; Derry and Williams, pp. 9495.

69. Hunter, "Medieval Gla.s.s Industry," p. 147.

70. B. Gille, "Organization of s.p.a.ce," in Daumas, I, p. 535.

71. Panofsky, Abbot Suger Abbot Suger, excerpted in Bryce Lyon, ed., The High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, 10001300, New York, 1964, p. 219.

72. Gervase of Canterbury, "Tract on the Burning and Repair of the Church of Canterbury," in R. Willis, The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral, London, 1945, excerpted in Lyon, ed., High Middle Ages High Middle Ages, pp. 22032.

73. "Architecture and Printing; the Bible of stone and the Bible of paper"-Victor Hugo, Notre-Dame de Paris Notre-Dame de Paris, trans. Jessie Haynes, New York, 1955 (first pub. in 1831), p. 118. The metaphor has been used by many writers, for example, Daniel-Rops, Cathedral and Crusade Cathedral and Crusade, p. 101: "The Bible of colour went hand in hand with, and sometimes preceded, the Bible of stone."

74. Joseph and Frances Gies, Life in a Medieval Castle Life in a Medieval Castle, New York, 1974, pp. 2124; B. Gille, "Organization of s.p.a.ce," in Daumas, I, pp. 53940.

75. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages War in the Middle Ages, p. 109.

76. Atiya, Crusade, Commerce, and Culture Crusade, Commerce, and Culture, pp. 12526.

77. Ibid., pp. 6667; F. Gies, Knight in History Knight in History, pp. 11618; Robin R. Fedden and John Thomson, Crusader Castles Crusader Castles, London, 1957; T. S. R. Boase, "Military Architecture in the Crusader States in Palestine and Syria," in Kenneth Setton, ed., A History of the Crusades A History of the Crusades, Madison, Wis., 19551977, vol. IV, pp. 14064.

78. Hill, History of Engineering History of Engineering, p. 172.

79. Fedden and Thomson, Crusader Castles Crusader Castles, p. 84. (The authors do not identify the "Muslim writer.") 80. Francesco Gabrielli, Arab Historians of the Crusades Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. E. J. Costello, Berkeley, Calif., 1969, pp. 31819.

81. Paul Gille, "Construction and Building," in Daumas, II, pp. 57374.

82. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages War in the Middle Ages, p. 113.

83. Joseph Needham, "China's Trebuchets, Manned and Counterweighted," in Hall and West, Pre-modern Technology Pre-modern Technology, pp. 10719.

84. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages War in the Middle Ages, pp. 1034; Donald Hill, "Trebuchets," Viator Viator 4 (1973), p. 110. 4 (1973), p. 110.

85. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages War in the Middle Ages, p. 103.

86. Ibid., p. 105; White, Medieval Technology and Social Change Medieval Technology and Social Change, pp. 1023.

87. Bertrand Gille, "The a.s.sembling of Raw Materials," in Daumas, I, pp. 51516.

88. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages War in the Middle Ages, p. 71.

89. Ibid., pp. 7172.

90. Robert S. Lopez, "The Evolution of Land Transport in the Middle Ages," Past and Present Past and Present 9 (1956), p. 19. 9 (1956), p. 19.

91. Lopez, Commercial Revolution Commercial Revolution, p. 158.

92. Frank M. Stenton, "The Road System of Medieval England," Economic History Review Economic History Review 7 (1936), p. 3. 7 (1936), p. 3.

93. Ibid., p. 6.

94. White, Medieval Religion and Technology Medieval Religion and Technology, p. 287.

95. For a summary of evidence on the origin of the pivoted axle, see Leighton, Transport and Communication Transport and Communication, pp. 11821; for horseshoes; pp. 1068.

96. Boyer, Medieval French Bridges Medieval French Bridges, p. 161.

97. Ibid., p. 40.

98. Ibid., p. 54, quoting John Mundy, "Charity and Social Work in Toulouse, 11001250," Traditio Traditio 22 (1966), p. 205. 22 (1966), p. 205.

99. J. Gies, Bridges and Men Bridges and Men, pp. 2831.

100. Boyer, Medieval French Bridges Medieval French Bridges, pp. 12728.

101. J. Gies, Bridges and Men Bridges and Men, pp. 3441.