It appears best to take up this subject room by room because the requirements vary considerably, but in order to be specific in the discussions, a middle-cla.s.s home will be chosen. The more important rooms will be treated first and various simple details will be touched upon because, after all, the proper lighting of a home is realized by attention to small details.

The living-room is the scene of many functions. It serves at times for the quiet gathering of the family, each member devoted to reading. At another time it may contain a happy company engaged at cards or in conversation. The lighting requirements vary from a spot or two of light to a flood of light. Excepting in the small living-rooms there does not appear to be a single good reason for a ceiling fixture. It is nearly always in the field of vision when occupants are engaged in conversation, and for reading purposes the portable lamp of satisfactory design has no rival. Wall brackets cannot supply general lighting without being too bright for comfort. If they are heavily shaded they may still emit plenty of light upward, but the adjacent spots on the walls or ceiling will generally be too bright. Wall brackets may be beautiful ornaments and decorative spots of light and have a right to exist as such, but they cannot be safely depended upon for adequate general lighting on those occasions which demand such lighting.

As a general principle, it is well to visualize the furniture in the room when looking at the architect's drawings and it is advantageous even to cut out pieces of paper representing the furniture in scale. By placing these on the drawings the furnished room is readily visualized and the locations of baseboard outlets become evident. It appears that the best method of lighting a living-room is by means of decorative portable lamps. Such lamps are really lighting-furniture, for they aid in decorating and in furnishing the room at all times. A number of these lamps in the living-room insures great flexibility in the lighting, and the light may be kept localized if desired so that the room is restful.

A room whose ceiling and walls are brilliantly illuminated is not so comfortable for long periods as one in which these areas are dimly lighted. Furthermore, the latter is more conducive to reading and to other efforts at concentration. The furniture may be readily shifted as desired and the portable lamps may be rearranged.

Such lighting serves all the purposes of the living-room excepting those requiring a flood of light, but it is easy to conceal elaborate lighting mechanisms underneath the shades of portable lamps. Several types of portable lamps are available which supply an indirect component as well as direct light. The former illuminates the ceiling with a flood of light without any discomforting glare. Such a lighting-unit is one of the most satisfactory for the home, for two distinct effects and a combination of these introduce a desirable element of variety into the lighting. Not less than four and preferably six baseboard outlets should be provided in a living-room of moderate size. One outlet on the mantel is also to be desired for connecting decorative candlesticks, and brackets above the fireplace are of ornamental value. Although the absence of ceiling fixtures improves the appearance of the room, wiring may be provided for ceiling outlets in new houses as a matter of insurance against the possible needs of the future. When ceiling fixtures are not used, switches may be provided for the mantel brackets or certain baseboard outlets in order that light may be had upon entering the room.

The merits of a portable lamp may be ascertained before purchasing by actual demonstration. Some of them are not satisfactory for reading-lamps, owing to the shape of the shade or to the position of the lamps. The utility of a table lamp may be determined by placing it upon a table and noting the spread of light while seated in a chair beside it. A floor lamp may also be tested very easily. A miniature floor lamp about four feet in height with an appropriate shade provides an excellent lamp for reading purposes because it may be placed by the side of a chair or moved about independent of other furniture. A tall floor lamp often serves for lighting the piano, but small piano lamps may be found which are decorative as well as serviceable in illuminating the music without glare.

The dining-room presents an entirely different problem for the setting is very definite. The dining-table is the most important area in the room and it should be the most brilliantly illuminated area in the room.

A demonstration of this point is thoroughly convincing. The decorator who designs wall brackets for the dining-room is interested in beautiful objects of art and not in a proper lighting effect. The fixture-dealer, having fixtures to sell and not recognizing that he could fill a crying need as a lighting specialist, is as likely to sell a semi-indirect or an indirect lighting fixture as he is to provide a properly balanced lighting effect with the table brightly illuminated. The indirect and semi-indirect units illuminate the ceiling predominantly with the result that this bright area distracts attention from the table. A brightly illuminated table holds the attention of the diners. Light attracts and a semi-darkness over the remainder of the room crowds in with a result that is far more satisfactory than that of a dining-room flooded with light.

The old-fashioned dome which hung over the dining-table has served well, for it illuminated the table and left the remainder of the room dimly lighted. But its wide aperture made it necessary to suspend it rather low in order that the lamps within should not be visible. It is an obtrusive fixture and despite its excellent lighting effect, it went out of style. But satisfactory lighting principles never become antiquated, and as taste in fixtures changes the principles may be retained in new fixtures. Modern domes are available which are excellent for the dining-room if the lamps are well concealed. The so-called showers are satisfactory if the shades are dense and of such shape as to conceal the lamps from the eyes. Various modifications readily suggest themselves to the alert fixture-designer. Even the housewife can do much with silk shades when the principle of lighting the dining-table is understood.

The so-called candelabra have been sold extensively for dining-rooms and they are fairly satisfactory if equipped with shades which reflect much of the light downward. Semi-indirect and indirect fixtures have many applications in lighting, but they do not provide the proper effect for a dining-room.

It is easy to make a special fixture which will send a component of light downward to the table and will permit a small amount of diffused light to the ceiling and walls. If a daylight lamp is used for the direct component, the table will appear very beautiful. Under this light the linen and china are white, flowers and decorations on the china appear in their full colors, the silver is attractive, and the various color-harmonies such as b.u.t.ter, paprika, and baked potato are enticing.

This is an excellent place for a daylight lamp if diffused light illuminating the remainder of the room and the faces of the diners is of a warm tone obtained by warm yellow lamps or by filtering these components of the light through orange shades. The ceiling fixture should be provided with two circuits and switches. In some cases it is easy to provide a dangling plug for connecting such electric equipment as a toaster, percolator, or candlesticks. Two candlesticks are effective on the buffet, but usually the smallest normal-voltage lamps available give too much light. Miniature lamps may be used with a small transformer, or two regular lamps may be connected in series. At least two baseboard outlets are convenient.

The foregoing deals with the more or less essential lighting of a dining-room, but there are various practicable additional lighting effects which add much charm to certain occasions. Colored light of low intensity obtained from a cove or from "flower-boxes" fastened upon the wall is very pleasing. If a cove is provided around the room, two circuits containing orange and blue lamps respectively will supply two colors widely differing in effect. By mixing the two a beautiful rose tint may be obtained. This equipment has been installed with much satisfaction. A simpler method of obtaining a similar effect is to use imitation flower-boxes plugged into wall outlets. Artificial foliage adds to the charm of these boxes. The colored light is merely to add another effect on special occasions and its intensity should never be high. In the dining-room such unusual effects are not out of place and they need not be garish.

The sun-room partakes of the characteristics of the living-room to some extent, but, it being smaller, a semi-indirect fixture may be satisfactory for general illumination. However, a portable lamp which supplies an indirect component of light besides the direct light serves admirably for reading as well as for flooding the room with light when necessary. Two or three baseboard outlets are desirable for attaching decorative or even purely utilitarian lamps. The sun-room is an excellent place for utilizing "flower-box" fixtures decorated with artificial foliage. In fact, a central fixture may a.s.sume the appearance of a "hanging basket" of foliage. The library and den offer no problems differing from those already discussed in the living-room. A careful consideration of the disposition of the furniture will reveal the best positions for the outlets. In a small library wall brackets may serve as decorative spots of light and if the shades are pendent they may serve as lamps for reading purposes. In both these rooms an excellent reading-lamp is desired, but it may be decorative as well. Wall outlets may be desired for decorative portable lamps upon the bookcases.

The sleeping-room, which commonly is also a dressing-room, often exhibits the errors of a lack of foresight in lighting. In most rooms of this character there is one best arrangement of furniture and if this is determined it is easy to ascertain where the windows and outlets should be located. The windows may usually be arranged for twin beds as well as for a single one with obvious advantages of flexibility in arrangement. With the position of the bureau determined it is easy to locate outlets for two wall brackets, one on each side, about sixty-six inches above the floor and about five feet apart. When the brackets are equipped with dense upright shades, the figure before the mirror is well illuminated without glare and sufficient light reaches the ceiling to illuminate the whole room.

A baseboard outlet should be available for small portable lamps which may be used upon the bureau or for electric heating devices. The same is true for the dressing-table; indeed, two small decorative lamps on the table serve better than high wall brackets owing to the fact that the user is seated. A baseboard outlet near the head of the bed or between the beds is convenient for a reading-lamp and for other purposes. An outlet in the center of the ceiling controlled by a convenient switch may be installed on building, as insurance against future needs or desires. But a single lighting-unit in the center of the ceiling does not serve adequately the needs at the bureau and dressing-table. In fact, two wall brackets properly located with respect to the bureau afford a lighting much superior for all purposes in the bedroom to that produced by a ceiling fixture.

In the bath-room the princ.i.p.al problem is to illuminate the person, especially the face, before the mirror. Many mistakes are made at this point, despite the simplicity of the solution. In order to see the image of an object in a mirror, the object must be illuminated. It is best to do this in a straightforward manner by means of a small lighting-unit on each side of the mirror at a height of five feet. Both sides of the face will be well illuminated and the light-sources are low enough to eliminate objectionable shadows. The units may be merely pull-chain sockets containing frosted or opal lamps. A center bracket or a single unit suspended from the ceiling is not as satisfactory as the two brackets. These afford enough light for the entire bath-room. A baseboard or wall outlet is convenient for connecting a heater, curling-iron, and other electrically heated devices.

The sewing-room, which in the middle-cla.s.s home is usually a small room, is sometimes used as a bedroom. A ceiling fixture will supply adequate general lighting, but a baseboard outlet should be available for a short floor lamp or a table lamp for sewing purposes. An intense local light is necessary for this occupation, which severely taxes the eyes. A so-called daylight lamp serves very well in this case.

[Ill.u.s.tration: OBTAINING TWO DIFFERENT MOODS IN A ROOM BY A PORTABLE LAMP WHICH SUPPLIES DIRECT AND INDIRECT COMPONENTS OF LIGHT]

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE LIGHTS OF NEW YORK CITY

Towering shafts of light defy the darkness and thousands of lighted windows symbolize man's successful struggle against nature]

In the kitchen the wall brackets are easily located after the positions of the range, work-table, sink, etc., are determined. A bracket for each is advisable unless they are so located that one will serve two purposes. It is customary to have a combination fixture for gas and electricity. This is often suspended from the center of the ceiling, but inasmuch as the gas-light cannot be close to the ceiling, the fixture extends so far downward as to become a nuisance. Furthermore, a light-source hung low from the center of the ceiling is in such a position that the worker in the kitchen usually works in his shadow. If a ceiling outlet is used it should be an electrical socket at the ceiling. The combination fixture is best placed on the wall as a bracket. The so-called daylight lamps are valuable in the kitchen.

In the bas.e.m.e.nt a generous supply of ceiling outlets adds much to the satisfaction of a bas.e.m.e.nt. One in each locker, one before the furnace, and a large daylight lamp above but to one side of the laundry trays are worth many times their cost. Furthermore, a wall socket for the electric iron and washing-machine is a convenience very much appreciated.

In the stairways convenient three-way switches for each of the ceiling fixtures represents the best practice. A baseboard outlet in the upper hall affords a connection for a decorative lamp and pays for itself many times as a place to attach the vacuum-cleaner from which all the rooms on that floor may be served. In vestibules and on porches ceiling fixtures controlled by means of convenient switches are satisfactory.

The entrance hall may be made to express hospitality by means of lighting which should be adequate and artistic.

An adequate supply of outlets and wall switches is not costly and they pay generous dividends. With a scanty supply of these, the possibilities of lighting are very much curtailed. There is nothing intricate about locating switches and outlets, so the householder may do this himself, or he may view critically the plans as submitted. The chief difficulties are to throw aside his indifference and to readjust his ideas and values. It may be confidently stated that the possibilities of lighting far outrank most of the features which contribute to the cost of a house and of its furnishings.

After considering the requirements and decorative schemes of the various rooms the householder should be competent to judge the appropriateness of the lighting effects obtained from fixtures which the dealer displays, but he should insist upon a demonstration. If the dealer is not equipped with a room for this purpose, he should be asked to demonstrate in the rooms to be lighted. If the fixture-dealer does not realize that he should be selling lighting effects, the householder should make him understand that lighting effects are of primary importance and the fixtures themselves are of secondary interest in most cases. The unused outlets that have been installed for possible future needs may be sealed in plastering if the positions are marked so that they may be found when desired.

An advantage of portable lamps is that they may be taken away on moving.

In fact, when lighting is eventually considered a powerful decorative medium, as it should be, it is probable that fixtures will be personal property attached to ceiling, wall, and floor outlets by means of plugs.

A variety of incandescent lamps are available. For the home, opal, frosted, or bowl-frosted lamps are usually more satisfactory than clear lamps. Bare filaments should not be visible, for they not only cause discomfort and eye-strain but they spoil what might otherwise be an artistic effect. Lamps with diffusing bulbs do much toward eliminating harsh shadows cast by the edges of the shades, by the chains of the fixtures, etc. These lamps are available in many shapes and sizes and the householder should make a record of voltage, wattage, and shape of the lamps which he finds satisfactory in the various fixtures. The Mazda daylight lamp has several places in the home and the Mazda white-gla.s.s and other high-efficiency lamps supply many needs better than the vacuum lamps. In brackets and other purely decorative lighting-units small frosted lamps are usually the most satisfactory. There is a general desire for the warm yellowish light of the candle-flame, and this may be obtained by a tinted shade but usually more satisfactorily by means of a tinted lamp.

The householder will find it interesting to become intimate with lighting, for it can serve him well. The housewife will often find much interest in making shades of textiles and of parchment. Charming gla.s.sware in appropriate tints and painted designs is available for all rooms. In the bedchamber and the nursery some of these painted designs are exceedingly effective. Fixtures should shield the lamps from the eyes, and the diffusing media whether gla.s.s or textile should be dense enough to prevent glare. No fixture can be beautiful and no lighting effect can be artistic if glare is present. If the architect and the householder will realize that light is a medium comparable with the decorator's media, better lighting will result. Light has the great advantage of being mobile and with adequate outlets and controls supplemented by fixtures from which different effects are available, the householder will find in lighting one of the most fruitful sources of interest and pleasure. It can do much toward expressing the taste of the householder or if neglected it can undo much of the effect of excellent decoration and furnishing. Artificial lighting, softly diffused and properly localized, is one of the most important factors in making a house a home.

XXV

LIGHTING--A FINE ART?

In the preceding chapters the progress of light has been sketched from its obscure infancy to its vigorous youth of the present time. It has been seen that progress was slow until the beginning of the nineteenth century, after which it began to gain momentum until the present century has witnessed tremendous advances. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century artificial light was considered an expensive utility, but as modern lamps appeared which supplied adequate light at reasonable cost attention began to be centered upon utilization, and the lighting engineer was born. Gradually it is being realized that artificial light is no longer a luxury, that it may be used in great quant.i.ty, and that it may be directed, diffused, and altered in color as desired. Although the potentiality of light has been barely drawn upon, the present usages surpa.s.s the most extravagant dreams of civilized beings a half-century ago. Mere light of that time was changed into more light as gas-lighting developed, and more light has increased to adequate light of the present time through the work of scientists.

It is apparent that a sudden enforced reversion to the primitive flames of fifty years ago would paralyze many activities. Much of interest and beauty would be blotted out of this brilliant, pulsating, productive age. It is startling to note that almost the entire progress in artificial lighting has taken place during the past hundred years and that most of it has been crowded into the latter part of this period. In fact, its development since it began in earnest has gone forward with ever-increasing momentum. On viewing the wonders of modern artificial lighting on every hand it is not difficult to muster the courage necessary to venture into its future.

The lighting engineer has been a natural evolution of the present age, for the economic aspects of lighting have demanded attention. He is increasing the safety, efficiency, and happiness of mankind and civilization is beginning to feel his influence economically. However, with the advent of adequate, efficient, and controllable light, the potentiality of light as an artistic medium may be drawn upon and the lighting artist with a deep insight into the possibilities of artificial light now has his opportunity. But the artist who believes that a new art may be evolved to perfection in a few years is doomed to disappointment, for it is necessary only to view retrospectively such arts as painting and music to be convinced that understanding and appreciation develop slowly through centuries of experiment and contact.

Will lighting ever become a fine art? Will it ever be able alone to arouse emotional man as do the fine arts? Are the powers of light sufficiently great to enthrall mankind without the aid of form, music, action, or spoken words? It is safer to answer "yes" than "no" to these questions. Painting has reached a high place as an art and this art is the expressiveness of secondary or reflected light reinforced by imitation forms, which by a combination of light and drawing comprise the "subjects." A painting is a momentary expression of light, a cross-section of something mobile, such as nature, thought, or action.

Light has the essential qualifications of painting with the advantages of a greater range of brightness, of greater purity of colors, and the great potentiality of mobility. If lighting becomes a fine art it will doubtless be related to painting somewhat in the same manner that architecture is akin to sculpture. With the introduction of mobility it will borrow something from the arts of succession and especially from music.

The art of lighting in its present infancy is leaning upon established arts, just as the infant learns to walk alone by first depending upon support. The use of color in painting developed slowly, being supported for centuries by the strength of drawing or subject. The landscapes of a century ago were dull, for color was employed hesitatingly and sparingly. The colors in the portraits of the past merely represented the gorgeous dress of bygone days. But the painter of the present shows that color is beginning to be used for itself and that the painter is no longer hesitant concerning its power to go hand in hand with drawing.

Drafting and coloring are now in partnership, the former having given up guardianship when the latter reached maturity.

Lighting is now an accompaniment of the drama, of the dance, of architecture, of decoration, and of music. It has been a background or a part of the "atmosphere" excepting occasionally when some one with imagination and daring has given it the leading role. Even in its infancy it has on occasions performed admirably almost without any aid.

The bursting rocket, the marvelous effects at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, and some of the exhibitions on the theatrical stage are glimpses of the potentiality of light. To fall back upon the terminology of music, these may be glimmerings of light-symphonies.

Harmony is simultaneity and a painting in this respect is a chord--a momentary expression fixed in material media. A melody of light requires succession just as the melody in music. The restless colors of the opal comprise a light melody like the songs of birds. The gorgeous splendor of the sunset compares in magnitude and in its various moods with the symphony orchestra and its powers. Throughout nature are to be found gentle chords, beautiful melodies and powerful symphonies of light and this music of light exhibits the complexity and structure a.n.a.logous to music. There is no physical relation between music, poetry, and light, but it is easy to lean upon the established terminology for purposes of discussion. Those who would build color-music identical to sound music are making the mistake of starting with a physical foundation instead of basing the art of light-expression upon psychological effects of light.

In other words, a relation between light and music can exist only in the psychological realm.

These melodies and symphonies of light in nature are admittedly pleasing or impressive as the case may be, but are they as appealing as music, poetry, painting, or sculpture? The consensus of opinion of a large group of average persons might indicate a negative reply, but the combined opinion of this group is not so valuable as the opinion of a colorist or of an artist who has sensed the wonders of light. The unprejudiced opinion of artists is that light is a powerfully expressive and impressive medium. The psychologist will likely state that the emotive value of light or color is not comparable to the appeal of an excellent dinner or of many other commonplace things. But he has experimented only with single colors or with simple patterns and his subjects are selected more or less at random from the mult.i.tude. What would be his conclusion if he examined painters and others who have developed their sensibilities to a deep appreciation of light and color?

It is certain that the painter who picks up a purple petal fallen from a rose and places it upon a green leaf is as thrilled by the powerful vibrant color-chord as the musician who hears an exquisite harmony of sounds.

Music has been presented to civilized mankind in an organized manner for ages and the fundamental physical basis of modern music is a thousand years old. Would the primitive savage appreciate the modern symphony orchestra? Even the majority of civilized beings prefer the modern ragtime or jazz to the exquisite art of the symphony. An appreciation of the opera and the symphony is reached by educational methods extending over long periods. An appreciation of the expressiveness of light cannot be expected to be realized by any short-cut. Most persons to-day enjoy the melodramatic "movie" more than the drama and relatively few experience the deep appeal of the fine arts. Surely the symphony of light cannot be justly condemned because of a lack of appreciation and understanding of it, for it has not been introduced to the public.

Furthermore, the expressiveness of music is still indefinite at best despite the many centuries of experimenting on the part of musicians.

If poetry is to be believed, the symphonies of light as rendered by nature in the sunsets, in the aurora borealis, and in other sky-effects of great magnitude have deeply impressed the poet. If his descriptions are to be accepted at their face-value, the melodies of light rendered in the precious stone, in the ice-crystal, and in the iridescence of bird-plumage please his finer sensibilities. If he is sincere, mobile light is a seductive agency.

The painter has contributed little of direct value in developing the music of light. He is concerned with an instantaneous expression. He waits for it patiently and, while waiting, learns to appreciate the fickleness of mood in nature, but when he fixes one of these moods he has contributed very little to the art of mobile light. Unfortunately the art schools teach the student little or nothing pertaining to color for color's sake. When the student is capable of drawing fairly well and is acquainted with a few stereotyped principles of color-harmony he is sent forth to follow in the footsteps of past masters. He may be seen at the art museum faithfully copying a famous painting or out in the fields stalking a tree with the hopes of an embryo Corot. The world moves and has only a position in the rank and file for imitators. Occasionally an artist goes to work with a vim and indulges in research, thereby demonstrating originality in two respects. Painting is just as much a field for research as light-production.

Recently experiments are being made in the production of color-harmonies devoid of form. Surely there is a field for pure color-composition and this the field of the painter which leads toward the art of mobile light. Many of the formless paintings of the present day which pa.s.s under the banner of this _ism_ or that are merely experiments in the expressiveness of light. Being formless, they are devoid of subject in the ordinary sense and cannot be more or less than a fixed expression of light. Naturally they have received much criticism and have been ridiculed, but they can expect nothing else until they are understood.

They cannot be understood until mankind learns their language and then they must be understandable. In other words, there are impostors gathered around the sincere research-artist because the former have neither the ability to paint for a living nor the inclination to forsake the comparative safety of the mystery of art for the practical world where their measure would be quickly taken. This army of camp-followers will not advance the art of mobile light, but the sincere seekers after the principles of light-expression who form the foundation of the various _isms_ may contribute much.

The painter will always be available with his finer sensibility to appreciate and to aid in developing the art of mobile light, but his direct contribution appears most likely to come from the present chaos of experiments in pure color-composition, in the psychology of light, or, more broadly, in the expressiveness of light. The decorator and the designer of gowns and costumes do not arrogate to themselves the name "artist," but they are daily creating something which is leading toward a fuller appreciation of the expressiveness of light. If they do not contribute directly to the development of the art of mobile light, they are at least aiding in developing what may eventually be an appreciative public.

The artist paints a "still-life," the decorator creates a color-harmony of abstract or conventional forms, and the costumer produces a color-composition in textiles. The decorator and costumer approach closer to pure color-composition than the artist in his still-life. The latter is a grouping of objects primarily for their color-notes. Why bother with a banana when a yellow-note is desired? Why utilize the abstract or conventional forms of the decorator? Why not follow this lead further to the less definite forms employed by the costumer? Why not eliminate form even more completely? This is an important point and an interesting lead, for to become rid of form has been one of the perplexing problems encountered by those who have dreamed of an art of mobile light.