XXIII

THE EXPRESSIVENESS OF LIGHT

From an esthetic or, more broadly, a psychological point of view no medium rivals light in expressiveness. Not only is light allied with man's most important sense but throughout long ages of a.s.sociations and uses mankind has bestowed upon it many attributes. In fact, it is possible that light, color, and darkness possess certain fundamentally innate powers; at least, they have acquired expressive and impressive powers through the many a.s.sociations in mythology, religion, nature, and common usage. Besides these attributes, light possesses a great advantage over the media of decoration in obtaining brightness and color effects. For example, the landscape artist cannot reproduce the range of values or brightnesses in most of nature's scenes, for if black is used to represent a deep shadow, white is not bright enough to represent the value of the sky. In fact, the range of brightnesses represented by the deep shadow and the sky extends far beyond the range represented by black and white pigments. The extreme contrast ordinarily available by means of artist's colors is about thirty to one, but the sky is a thousand times brighter than a shadow, a sunlit cloud is thousands of times brighter than the deep shadows of woods, and the sun is millions of times brighter than the shadows in a landscape.

The range of brightnesses obtainable by means of light extends from darkness or black throughout the range represented by pigments under equal illumination and beyond these through the enormous range obtainable by unequal illumination of surfaces to the brightnesses of the light-sources themselves. In the matter of purity of colors, light surpa.s.ses reflecting media, for it is easy to obtain approximately pure hues by means of light and to obtain pure spectral hues by resorting to the spectrum of light. It is impossible to obtain pure hues by means of pigments or of other reflecting media. These advantages of light are very evident on turning to spectacular lighting effects, and even the lighting of interiors ill.u.s.trates a potentiality in light superior to other media. For example, in a modern interior in which concealed lighting produces brilliantly illuminated areas above a cornice and dark shadows on the under side, the range in values is often much greater than that represented by black and white, and still there remains the possibility of employing the light-sources themselves in extending the scale of brightness. Superposing color upon the whole it is obvious that the combination of "primary" light with reflected light possesses much greater potentiality than the latter alone. This potentiality of light is best realized if lighting is regarded as "painting with light" in a manner a.n.a.logous to the decorator's painting with pigments, etc.

The expressive possibilities of lighting find extensive applications in relation to painting, sculpture, and architecture. A painting is an expression of light and the sculptor's product finally depends upon lighting for its effectiveness. Lighting is the master painter and sculptor. It may affect the values of a painting to some extent and it is a great influence upon the colors. It molds the model from which the sculptor works and it molds the completed work. The direction, distribution, and quality of light influence the appearance of all objects and groups of them. Aside from the modeling of ornament, the light and shade effects of relatively large areas in an interior such as walls and ceiling, the contrasts in the brightnesses of alcoves with that of the main interior, and the shadows under cornices, beams, and arches are expressions of light.

The decorator is able to produce a certain mood in a given interior by varying the distribution of values and the choice of colors and the lighting artist is able to do likewise, but the latter is even able to alter the mood produced by the decorator. For example, a large interior flooded with light from concealed sources has the airiness and extensiveness of outdoors. If lighted solely by means of sources concealed in an upper cornice, the ceiling may be bright and the walls may be relatively dark by contrast. Such a lighting effect may produce a feeling of being hemmed in by the walls without a roof. If the room is lighted by means of chandeliers hung low and equipped with shades in such a manner that the lower portions of the walls may be light while the upper portions of the interior may be ill defined, the feeling produced may be that of being hemmed in by crowding darkness. Thus lighting is productive of moods and illusions ranging from the mystery of crowding darkness to the extensiveness of outdoors.

Future lighting of interiors doubtless will provide an adequacy of lighting effects which will meet the respective requirements of various occasions. A decorative scheme in which light and medium grays are employed produces an interior which is very sensitive to lighting effects. To these light-and-shade effects colored light may add its charming effectiveness. Not only are colored lighting effects able to add much to the beauty of the setting but they possess certain other powers. Blue tints produce a "cold" effect and the yellow and orange tints a "warm" effect. For example, a room will appear cooler in the summer when illuminated by means of bluish light and a practical application of this effect is in the theater which must attract audiences in the summer. How tinted illuminants fit the spirit of an occasion or the mood of a room may be fully appreciated only through experiments, but these are so effective that the future of lighting will witness the application of the idea of "painting with light" to its fullest extent. Color is demanded in other fields, and, considering its effectiveness and superiority in lighting, it will certainly be demanded in lighting when its potentiality becomes appreciated and readily utilized.

The expressiveness of light is always evident in a landscape. On a sunny day the mood of a scene varies throughout the day and it grows more enticing and agreeable as the shadows lengthen toward evening. The artist in painting a desert scene employs short harsh shadows if he desires to suggest the excessive heat. These shadows suggest the relentless noonday sun. The overcast sky is universally depressing and it has been found that on a sunny day most persons experience a slight depression when a cloud obscures the sun. Nature's lighting varies from moment to moment, from day to day, and from season to season. It presents the extremes of variation in distributions of light from overcast to sunny days and in the latter cases the shadows are continually shifting with the sun's alt.i.tude. They are harshest at noon and gradually fade as they lengthen, until at sunset they disappear. The colors of sunlit surfaces and of shadows vary from sunrise to sunset.

These are the fundamental variations in the lighting, but in the various scenes the lighting effects are further modified by clouds and by local conditions or environment. The vast outdoors provides a fruitful field for the study of the expressiveness of light.

Having become convinced of this power of light, the lighting expert may turn to artificial light, which is so easily controlled in direction, distribution, and color, and draw upon its potentiality. Not only is it easy to provide a lighting suitable to the mood or to the function of an interior but it is possible to obtain some variety in effect so that the lighting may always suit the occasion. A study of nature's lighting reveals one great principle, namely, variety. Mankind demands variety in most of his activities. Work is varied and alternated with recreation.

Meals are not always the same. Clothing, decorations, and furnishings are relieved of monotony. One of the most potent features of artificial light is the ease with which variety may be obtained. In obtaining relief from the monotony of decorations and furnishings, considerable expense and inconvenience are inevitably encountered. With an adequate supply of outlets, circuits, and controls a wide variety of lighting effects may be obtained with perhaps an insignificant increase in the initial investment. Variety is the spice of lighting as well as of life.

These various principles of lighting are readily exemplified in the lighting of the home, which is discussed in another chapter. The church is even a better example of the expressive possibilities of lighting.

The architectural features are generally of a certain period and first of all it is essential to harmonize the lighting effect with that of the architectural and decorative scheme. Obviously, the dark-stained ceiling of a certain type of church would not be flooded with light. The fact that it is made dark by staining precludes such a procedure in lighting.

The characteristics of creeds are distinctly different and these are to some extent exemplified by the lines of the architecture of their churches. In the same way the lighting effect may be harmonized with the creed and the spirit of the interior. The lighting may always be dignified, impressive, and congruous. Few churches are properly lighted with a high intensity of illumination; moderate lighting is more appropriate, for it is conducive to the spirit of worship. In some creeds a dominant note is extreme penitence and severity. The architecture may possess harsh outlines, and this severity or extreme solemnity may be expressed in lighting by harsher contrasts, although this does not mean that the lighting must be glaring. On the other hand, in a certain modern creed the dominant note appears to be cheerfulness.

The s.p.a.cious interiors of the churches of this creed are lacking in severe lines and the walls and ceilings are highly reflecting. Adequate illumination by means of diffused light without the production of severe contrasts expresses the creed, modernity, and enlightenment. On the altar of certain churches the expressiveness of light is utilized in the ceremonial uses which vary with the creed. Even the symbolism of color may be appropriately woven into the lighting of the church.

The expressiveness of light and color originated through the contact of primitive man with nature. Sunlight meant warmth and a bountiful vegetation, but darkness restricted his activities and harbored manifold dangers. Many a.s.sociations thus originated and they were extended through ignorance and superst.i.tion. Yellow is naturally emblematical of the sun and it became the symbol of warmth. Brown as the predominant color of the autumn foliage became tinctured with sadness because the decay of the vegetation presaged the death of the year and the cold dreary months of winter. The first signs of green vegetation in the spring were welcomed as an end of winter and a beginning of another bountiful summer; hence green symbolized youth and hope. It became a.s.sociated with the springtime of life and thus signified inexperience, but as the color of vegetation it also meant life itself and became a symbol of immortality. Blue acquired certain divine attributes because, as the color of the sky, it was a.s.sociated with the abode of the G.o.ds or heaven. Also a blue sky is the acme of serenity and this color acquired certain appropriate attributes.

a.s.sociations of this character became woven into mythology and thus became firmly established. Poets have felt these influences of light and color in nature and have given expression to them in words. They also have entwined much of the mythology of past civilizations and these repet.i.tions have helped to establish the expressiveness of light and color. Early ecclesiasts employed these symbolisms in religious ceremonies and dictated the garbs of saints and other religious personages in the paintings which decorated their edifices. Thus there were many influences at work during the early centuries when intellects were particularly susceptible through superst.i.tion and lack of knowledge. The result has been an extensive symbolism of light, color, and darkness.

At the present time it is difficult to separate the innate appeal of light, color, and darkness from those attributes which have been acquired through a.s.sociations. Possibly light and color have no innate powers but merely appear to have because the acquired attributes have been so thoroughly established through usage and common consent. s.p.a.ce does not permit a discussion of this point, but the chief aim is consummated if the existence of an expressiveness and impressiveness of light is established. There are many other symbolisms of color and light which have arisen in various ways but it is far beyond the scope of this book to discuss them.

Psychological investigations reveal many interesting facts pertaining to the influence of light and color upon mankind. When choosing color for color's sake alone, that is, divorced from any a.s.sociations of usage, mankind prefers the pure colors to the tints and shades. It is interesting to note that this is in accord with the preference exhibited by uncivilized beings in their use of colors for decorating themselves and their surroundings. Civilized mankind chooses tints and shades predominantly to live with, that is, for the decoration of his surroundings. However, civilized man and the savage appear to have the same fundamental preference for pure colors and apparently culture and refinement are responsible for their difference in choice of colors to live with. This is an interesting discovery and it has its applications in lighting, especially in spectacular and stage-lighting.

It appears to be further established that when civilized man chooses color for color's sake alone he not only prefers the pure colors but among these he prefers those near the ends of the spectrum, such as red and blue. Red is favored by women, with blue a close second, but the reverse is true for men. It is also thoroughly established that red, orange, and yellow exert an exciting influence; yellow-green, green, and blue-green, a tranquilizing influence, and blue and violet a subduing influence upon mankind. All these results were obtained with colors divorced from surroundings and actual usage. In the use of light and color the laws of harmony and esthetics must be obeyed, but the sensibility of the lighting artist is a satisfactory guide. Harmonies are of many varieties, but they may be generally grouped into two cla.s.ses, those of a.n.a.logy and those of contrast. The former includes colors closely a.s.sociated in hue and the latter includes complementary colors. No rules in simplified form can be presented for the production of harmonies in light and color. These simplifications are made only by those who have not looked deeply enough into the subject through observation and experiment to see its complexity.

The expressiveness of light finds applications throughout the vast field of lighting, but the stage offers great opportunities which have been barely drawn upon. When one has awakened to the vast possibilities of light, shade, and color as a means of expression it is difficult to suppress a critical att.i.tude toward the crudity of lighting effects on the present stage, the lack of knowledge pertaining to the latent possibilities of light, and the superficial use of this potential medium. The crude realism and the almost total absence of deep insight into the attributes of light and color are the chief defects of stage-lighting to-day. One turns hopefully toward the gallant though small band of stage artists who are striving to realize a harmony of lighting, setting, and drama in the so-called modern theater.

Unappreciated by a public which flocks to the melodramatic movie, whose scenarios produced upon the legitimate stage would be jeered by the same public, the modern stage artist is striving to utilize the potentiality of light. But even among these there are impostors who have never achieved anything worth while and have not the perseverance to learn to extract some of the power of light and to apply it effectively. Lighting suffers in the hands of the artist owing to the absence of scientific knowledge and it is misused by the engineer who does not possess an esthetic sensibility. Science and art must be linked in lighting.

The worthy efforts of stage artists in some of the modern theaters lack the support of the producers, who cater to the taste of the public which pays the admission fees. Apparently the modern theater must first pa.s.s through a period in which financial support must be obtained from those who are able to give it, just as the symphony orchestra has been supported for the sake of art. Certainly the time is at hand for philanthropy to come to the aid of worthy and capable stage artists who hope to rescue theatrical production from the mire of commercialism.

Those who have not viewed stage-lighting from behind the scenes would often be surprised at the crudity of the equipment, and especially at the superficial intellects which are responsible for some of the realistic effects obtained. But these are the result usually of experiment, not of directed knowledge. Furthermore, little thought is given to the emotional value of light, shade, and color. The flood of light and the spot of light are varied with gaudy color-effects, but how seldom is it possible to distinguish a deep relation between the lighting and the dramatic incidents!

[Ill.u.s.tration: Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument

Jeweled portal welcoming returned soldiers

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT HONORING THOSE WHO FELL AND THOSE WHO RETURNED]

[Ill.u.s.tration]

[Ill.u.s.tration: THE EXPRESSIVENESS OF LIGHT IN CHURCHES]

In much of the foregoing discussion the present predominating theatrical productions are not considered, for the lighting effects are good enough for them. Many ingenious tricks and devices are resorted to in these productions, and as a whole lighting is serving effectively enough. But in considering the expressiveness of light the deeper play is the medium necessary for utilizing the potentiality of light. These are rare and unfortunately the stage artist appreciative of the significations and emotional value of light and color is still rarer.

The equipment of the present stage consists of footlights, side-lights, border-lights, flood-lights, spot-lights, and much special apparatus.

One of the severest criticisms of stage-lighting from an artistic point of view may be directed against the use of footlights for obtaining the dominant light. This is directed upward and the effect is an unnatural and even a grotesque modeling of the actors' features. The shadows produced are incongruous, for they are opposed to the other real and painted effects of light and shade. The only excuse for such lighting is that it is easily done and that proper lighting is difficult to obtain, owing to the fact that it involves a change in construction. By no means should the footlights be abandoned, for they would still be invaluable in obtaining diffused light even when the dominant light is directed from above the horizontal. In the present stage-lighting, in which the footlights generally predominate, the expressiveness of light is not satisfactory. Perhaps they are a necessary compromise, but inasmuch as their effect is unnatural they should not be accepted until it is thoroughly proved that ingenuity cannot eliminate the present defects.

The stage as a whole is a mobile picture in light, shade, and color with the addition of words and music. Excepting the latter, it is an expression of light worthy of the same care and consideration that the painting, which is also an expression of light, receives from the artist. The scenery and costumes should be considered in terms of the lighting effects because they are affected by changes in the color of the light. In fact, the author showed a number of years ago that by carefully relating the colors of the light with the colors used in painting the scenery, a complete change of scene can be obtained by merely changing the color of the light. Rather wonderful dissolving effects can be produced in this manner without shifting scenery. For example, a warm summer scene with trees in full foliage under a yellow light may be changed under a bluish light to a winter scene with ground covered with snow and trees barren of leaves. But before such accomplishments can be realized upon the stage, scientific knowledge must be available behind the scenes.

The art museum affords a mult.i.tude of opportunities for utilizing the expressiveness of light. This is more generally true of sculptured objects than of paintings because the latter may be treated as a whole.

The artist almost invariably paints a picture by daylight and unless it is illuminated by daylight it is altered in appearance, that is, it becomes another picture. The great difference in the appearance of a painting under daylight and ordinary artificial light is quite startling, when demonstrated by means of apparatus in which the two effects may be rapidly alternated. Art museums are supposed to exhibit the works of artists and, therefore, no changes in these works should be tolerated if they can be avoided. The modern artificial-daylight lamps make it possible to illuminate galleries with light at night which approximates daylight. A further advantage of artificial light is that it may be easily controlled and a more satisfactory lighting may be obtained than with natural light. Considering the cost of daylight in museums and its disadvantages it appears possible that artificial daylight with its advantages may replace it eventually in the large galleries. If the works of artists are really prized for their appearance, the lighting of them is very important.

Sculpture is modeled by light and although it is impossible to ascertain the lighting under which the sculptor viewed his completed work with pride and satisfaction, it is possible to give the best consideration to its lighting in its final place of exhibition. The appearance of a sculpture depends upon the dominant direction of the light, the solid-angle subtended by the light-source (skylight, area of sky, etc.) and the amount of scattered light. The direction of dominant light determines the general direction of the shadows; the solid-angle of the light-source affects the character of the edges of the shadows; and the scattered light accounts for the brightness of the shadows. It should be obvious that variations of these factors affect the appearance or expression of three-dimensional objects. Therefore the position of a sculptured object with respect to the window or other skylight and the amount of light reflected from the surroundings are important. Visits to art museums with these factors in mind reveal a gross neglect in the lighting of objects of art which are supposed to appeal by virtue of their appearances, for they can arouse the emotions only through the doorway of vision.

A century ago mankind gave no thought to utilizing the expressive and impressive powers of light except in religious ceremonies. It was not practicable to utilize light from the feeble flames of those days in the elaborate manner necessary to draw upon these powers. Man was concerned with the more pressing needs. He wanted enough light to make the winter evenings endurable and the streets reasonably safe. The artists of those days saw the wonderful expressions of light exhibited by Nature, but they dared not dream of rivaling these with artificial light. To-day Nature surpa.s.ses man in the production of lighting effects only in magnitude. Man surpa.s.ses her artistically. In fact, the artist becomes a master only when he can improve upon her settings; when he is able by rare judgment in choosing and in eliminating and by skill and ingenuity to subst.i.tute a complete harmony for her incomplete and unsatisfactory reality. But everywhere Nature is the great teacher, for her world is full of an everchanging infinitude of expressions of light. Mankind needs only to study these with an attuned sensibility to be able eventually to play the music of light for those who are blessed with an esthetic sense.

XXIV

LIGHTING THE HOME

In the home artificial light exerts its influence upon every one.

Without artificial lighting the family circle may not have become the important civilizing influence that it is to-day. Certainly civilized man now shudders at the thought of spending his evenings in the light of the fire upon the hearth or of a burning splinter.

The importance of artificial light is emphatically impressed upon the householder when he is forced temporarily to depend upon the primitive candle through the failure of the modern system of lighting. He flees from his home to that of his more fortunate neighbor, or he retires in his helplessness to awaken in the morning with a blessing for daylight.

He cannot conceive of happiness and recreation in the homes of a century or two ago, when a few candles or an oil-lamp or two were the sole sources of light. But when the electric or gas service is again restored he relapses shortly into his former placid indifference toward the wonderfully efficient and adequate artificial light of the present age.

Until recently artificial light was costly and the householder in common with other users of light did not concern himself with the question of adequate and artistic lighting. His chief aim was to utilize as little as possible, for cost was always foremost in his mind. The development of the science of light-production has been so rapid during the past generation that adequate, efficient, and cheap artificial light finds mankind unconsciously viewing lighting with the same att.i.tude as he displays toward his food and fuel bills. Another consequence of this rapid development is that mankind does not know how to extract the joy from modern artificial light. This is readily demonstrated by a.n.a.lyzing the lighting of middle-cla.s.s homes.

The cost of light has been discussed in another chapter and it has been shown that it has decreased enormously in a century. It is now the most potential agency in the home when viewed from the standpoint of cost.

The average householder pays less than twenty dollars per year for ever-ready light throughout his home. For about five cents per day the average family enjoys all the blessings of modern lighting, which is sufficient proof that cost is an insignificant item.

In order to simplify the discussion of lighting the home the terminology of electric-lighting will be used. The principles expounded apply as well to gas as to electricity, and owing to the ingenuity of the gas-lighting experts, the possibilities of gas-lighting are extensive despite its handicaps. There are some places in the home, such as the kitchen and bas.e.m.e.nt, where lighting is purely utilitarian in the narrow sense, but in most of the rooms the esthetic or, more broadly, the psychological aspects of lighting should dominate. Pure utility is always a by-product of artistic lighting and furthermore, the lighting effects will be without glare when they satisfy all the demands of esthetics.

In dealing with lighting in the home the householder should concentrate his attention upon lighting effects. Unfortunately, he is not taught to do so, for everywhere he turns for help he finds the discussion directed toward fixtures and lamps instead of toward lighting effects. However, these are merely links in the chain from the meter to the eye. Lamps are of interest from the standpoint of quant.i.ty and quality of light, and fixtures are of importance chiefly as distributers of light. These details are merely means to an end and the end is the lighting effect.

Of course, the fixtures are more important as objects than the wires because they are visible and should harmonize with the general decorative and architectural scheme.

The home is the theater of life full of various moods and occasions; hence the lighting of a home should be flexible. A degree of variety should be possible. Controls, wiring, outlets, and fixtures should conspire to provide this variety. At the present time the average householder does not give much attention to lighting until he purchases fixtures. It is probable that he thought of it when he laid out or approved the wiring, but usually he does not consider it seriously until he visits the fixture-dealer to purchase fixtures. And then unfortunately the fixture-dealer does not light his home; he does not sell the householder lighting-effects designed to meet the requirements of the particular home; he sells merely fixtures.

Unfortunately there are few fixtures available which have definite aims in lighting as demanded by the home. Of the great variety of fixtures available there are many artistic objects, but it is obvious that little attention is given to their design from the standpoint of lighting.

That the fixture-dealer usually thinks of fixtures as objects and gives little or no thought to lighting effects is apparent from his conversation and from his display. He exhibits fixtures usually en ma.s.se and seldom attempts to ill.u.s.trate the lighting effects produced in the room.

The foregoing criticisms are presented to emphasize the fact that throughout the field of lighting the great possibilities which have been opened by modern light-sources are not fully appreciated. The point at which to begin to design the lighting for a home is the wiring.

Unfortunately this is too often done by a contractor who has given no special thought to the possibilities of lighting and to the requirements in wiring and switches necessary in order to realize them. At this point the householder should attempt to form an opinion as to the relative values. Is artificial lighting important enough to warrant an expenditure of two per cent. of the total investment in the home and its furnishings? The answer will depend upon the extent to which artificial light is appreciated. It appears that four or five per cent. is not too much if it is admitted that the artificial lighting system ranks next to the heating plant in importance and that these two are the most important features of an interior of a residence. A switch or a baseboard outlet costs an insignificant sum but either may pay for itself many times in the course of a few years through its utility or convenience.