TURQUOISE. Turquoise of the finest blue and most compact texture (and hence least subject to color change) comes from the province of Khorasan in Persia. Several of our western states supply turquoise of fair quality, notably New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California.

LAPIS LAZULI. Lapis Lazuli comes from Afghanistan, from Siberia, and from South America.

MALACHITE. Malachite is found in many copper mines, but princ.i.p.ally in those of the Ural Mountains.

AZURITE. Azurite is found in the Arizona mines and in Chessy, in France (hence the name chessylite, sometimes used instead of azurite).

REFERENCES. Students who wish to get a fuller account of the occurrence of precious stones should run through G. F. Herbert-Smith's _Gem-Stones_ under the different varieties. This work is the most recent authentic work of a strictly scientific character. Dr. George F. Kunz's _Gems and Precious Stones of North America_ gives a detailed account of all the finds in North America up to the time of publication. Many of these are of course of little commercial importance. The _Mineral Resources of the United States_ contains annually a long account of the occurrences of gem materials in this country. A separate pamphlet containing only the gem portion can be had gratis from the office of the United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

LESSON XXII

HOW ROUGH PRECIOUS STONES ARE CUT

ROUGH PRECIOUS STONES. John Ruskin, who had the means to acquire some very fine natural specimens of gem material was of the opinion that man ought not to tamper with the wonderful crystals of nature, but that rather they should be admired in the rough. While one can understand Ruskin's viewpoint, nevertheless the art of man can make use of the optical properties of transparent minerals, properties no less wonderful than those exhibited in crystallization, and indeed intimately a.s.sociated with the latter, and, by shaping the rough material in accordance with these optical properties, greatly enhance the beauty of the gem.

No material ill.u.s.trates the wonderful improvement that may be brought about by cutting and polishing better than diamond. In the rough the diamond is less attractive in appearance than rock crystal. G. F.

Herbert-Smith likens its appearance to that of soda crystals. Another author likens it to gum arabic. The surface of the rough diamond is usually ridged by the overlapping of minute layers or strata of the material so that one cannot look into the clear interior any more than one can look into a bank, through the prism-gla.s.s windows that are so much used to diffuse the light that enters by means of them. Being thus of a rough exterior the uncut diamond shows none of the snap and fire which are developed by proper cutting.

As the diamond perhaps shows more improvement on being cut than any other stone, and as the art of cutting the diamond is distinct from that of cutting other precious stones, both in the method of cutting and in the fact that the workers who cut diamonds cut no other precious stones, it will be well to consider diamond cutting separately.

Before discussing the methods by which the shaping and polishing are accomplished let us consider briefly the object that is in view in thus altering the shape and smoothing the surface of the rough material.

HOW CUTTING INCREASES BRILLIANCY. Primarily the object of cutting a diamond is to make it more brilliant. So true is this that the usual form to which diamonds are cut has come to be called the _brilliant_.

The adjective has become a noun. The increased brilliancy is due mainly to two effects: First, greatly increased reflection of light, and second, dispersion of light. The reflection is partly external but princ.i.p.ally internal.

Taking up first the internal reflection which is responsible for most of the white brilliancy of the cut stone we must note that it is a fact that light that is pa.s.sing through any transparent material will, upon arriving at any polished surface, either penetrate and emerge or else it will be reflected within the material, depending upon the angle at which the light strikes the surface. For each material there is a definite angle outside of which light that is pa.s.sing as above described, is _totally reflected_ within the material.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 9.

_AB_ represents the back surface of a piece of diamond.

_CD_ is a line perpendicular to _AB_.

Angle _CDE_ is about 24 degrees.

Dotted line, _FDH_ represents the course taken by a ray of light which is totally reflected at _D_ in such fashion that angle _FDA_ equals angle _HDB_.

Any light proceeding towards _AB_ but between _E_ and _C_, would fail to be totally reflected. Most of it would penetrate _AB_.]

TOTAL REFLECTION. For diamond this _critical angle_, as it is called, is very nearly 24 from a perpendicular to the surface. If now, we shape a diamond so that most of the light that enters it from the front falls upon the first back surface that it meets, at an angle greater than 24 to a perpendicular to that surface, the light will be totally reflected within the stone. The angle at which it is reflected will be the same as that at which it meets the surface. In other words the angles of incidence and of reflection are equal. See Fig. 9 for an ill.u.s.tration of this point.

THEORY OF THE "BRILLIANT." In the usual "brilliant" much of the light that enters through the front surface is thus totally reflected from the first rear facet that it meets and then proceeds across the stone to be again totally reflected from the opposite side of the brilliant. This time the light proceeds toward the top of the stone. See Fig. 10--(From G. F. Herbert-Smith's _Gem-Stones_).

The angles of the top of a brilliant are purposely made so flat that the up coming light fails to be totally reflected again and is allowed to emerge to dazzle the beholder. In the better made brilliants the angle that the back slope makes with the plane of the girdle is very nearly 41 and the top angle, or angle of the front slope to the plane of the girdle is about 35. Such well made brilliants when held up to a bright light appear almost black--that is, they fail to pa.s.s any of the light through them (except through the tiny culet, which, being parallel to the table above, pa.s.ses light that comes straight down to it).

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 10.--COURSE OF THE RAYS OF LIGHT Pa.s.sING THROUGH A BRILLIANT.]

In other words, instead of allowing the light to penetrate them, well-made brilliants almost totally reflect it back toward its source, that is, toward the front of the stone. The well-cut diamond is a very brilliant object, viewed from the front.

We must now consider how the "fire" or prismatic color play is produced, for it is even more upon the display of fire than upon its pure white brilliancy that the beauty of a diamond depends.

CAUSE OF "FIRE." As we saw in Lesson X. (which it would be well to re-read at this time), white light that changes its course from one transparent medium to another at any but a right angle to the surface involved, is not only refracted (as we saw in Lesson II.) but is dispersed, that is, light of different colors is bent by differing amounts and thus we have a separation of the various colors. If this takes place as the ray of light leaves the upper surface of a brilliant the observer upon whose eye the light falls will see either the red, or the yellow, or the blue, as the case may be, rather than the white light which entered the stone. If instead, the dispersion takes place as the light enters the brilliant the various colored rays thus produced will be totally reflected back to the observer (slightly weakened by spreading, as compared to the direct or unreflected spectra). Thus dispersion produces the "fire" in a brilliant.

Other materials than diamond behave similarly, but usually to a much smaller extent, for few gem materials have so high a refractive power or so great a dispersive power as diamond.

Having considered the theory of the brilliant we may now take up a study of the methods by which the exceedingly hard rough diamond is shaped and polished.

CLEAVING DIAMONDS. If the rough material is of poor shape, or if it has conspicuous defects in it which prevent its being made into a single stone, it is cleaved (_i. e._, split along its grain). Hard as it is, diamond splits readily in certain definite directions (parallel to any of the triangular faces of the octahedral crystal). The cleaver has to know the grain of rough diamonds from the external appearance, even when the crystals, as found, are complicated modifications of the simple crystal form. He can thus take advantage of the cleavage to speedily reduce the rough material in size and shape to suit the necessity of the case. The cleaving is accomplished by making a nick or groove in the surface of the rough material at the proper point (the stone being held by a tenacious wax, in the end of a holder, placed upright in a firm support). A thin steel knife blade is then inserted in the nick and a sharp light blow struck upon the back of the knife blade. The diamond then readily splits.

"CUTTING DIAMONDS." The next step is to give the rough material a shape closely similar to that of the finished brilliant but rough and without facets. This shaping or "cutting" as it is technically called, is done by placing the rough stone in the end of a holder by means of a tough cement and then rotating holder and stone in a lathe-like machine.

Another rough diamond (sometimes a piece of bort, unfit for cutting, and sometimes a piece of material of good quality which it is necessary to reduce in size or alter in shape) is cemented into another holder and held against the surface of the rotating diamond. The holder is steadied against a firm support. It now becomes a case of "diamond cut diamond,"

each stone wearing away the other and being worn away itself.

The cutting process is fairly rapid and it leaves the stone (which is reversed to make the opposite side) round in form and with a rounding top and cone-shaped back. Stones of fancy shape, such as square, or cushion shape, have to be formed in part by hand rubbing or "bruting" as it is called.

The facets must now be polished onto the stone. Usually the workers who cut do not cleave or polish.

"POLISHING" DIAMONDS. The polisher fixes the cut stone firmly in a metallic holder called a dop, which is cleverly designed to hold the stone with much of one side of it exposed. The holder is then inverted so that the stone is beneath and a stout copper wire attached to the holder is then clamped firmly in a sort of movable vise. The latter is then placed on the bench in such a position that the diamond rests upon the surface of a rapidly revolving horizontal iron wheel or "lap" as it is called. The surface of the latter is "charged" with diamond dust, that is, diamond dust has been pushed into the metal surface which thus acts as a support to the dust. The latter wears away the diamond, producing a flat facet. The lap is kept moistened with oil and from time to time fresh oil and diamond dust are applied. A speed of about 2,000 rotations per minute is used.

FACETTING. The making of the facets is rather slow work, especially when, as is usually the case in making the "table" the work has to be done against one of the "hard points" of the crystal. Great care has to be taken to place the stone so that the grain lies in a correct position, for diamond cannot be polished against the grain, nor even exactly with it, but only obliquely across it. This requirement, as much as anything, has prevented the use of machines in polishing diamonds.

The table is usually first polished on, then the four top slopes, dividing the top surface into quarters, then each of the four ridges thus left, is flattened, making eight facets and finally 32 facets, exclusive of the table, are made upon the top of the brilliant. The stone is then reversed and 24 facets, and the culet, polished on the back. As each facet nears its proper shape the stone is placed upon a particularly smooth part of the lap and a slight vibratory motion given to the holder by the hand. This smooths out any lines or grooves that may have formed because of inequalities of surface of the lap. When completely facetted the brilliant is finished and requires only to be cleaned, when it is ready for sale.

LESSON XXIII

HOW ROUGH PRECIOUS STONES ARE CUT AND WHAT CONSt.i.tUTES GOOD "MAKE"--_Concluded_

SLITTING AND CLEAVING. The cutting and polishing of precious stones other than diamond is a trade entirely distinct from diamond cutting.

The precious stone lapidary cuts every species of stone except diamond.

The methods used by different lapidaries vary somewhat in their details, and there are many trade secrets which are more or less jealously guarded by their possessors, but in general the methods used to reduce the rough materials to the finished gems are as follows: First, the rough material, if of too large size, or if very imperfect, is _slitted_, or, if it possesses a p.r.o.nounced cleavage, it may be _cleaved_, in order to reduce the size or to remove imperfect parts.

_Slitting_ is accomplished by means of a circular disc of thin metal which is hammered so that it will be flat and rotate truly, and is then clamped between face plates, much as an emery wheel is held. The smooth edge of the circular disc is then charged with diamond dust and oil, the diamond dust being bedded into the edge of the metal disc by the pressure of some hard, fine-grained material, such as chalcedony, or rolled into the metal by the use of a rotating roller. Once charged, and kept freely supplied with oil, a slitting wheel will slice a considerable number of pieces of any precious stone less hard than diamond, and will do so with considerable rapidity. The wheel is, of course, rotated very rapidly for this purpose.

The cleaving of certain gem materials, such as true topaz (which splits perfectly across the prism, parallel to its base) is easily accomplished, and it is done in much the same manner as the cleaving of diamond. The feldspar gems, such as moonstone, amazonite, and labradorite, also cleave very smoothly in certain directions. Spodumene, of which Kunzite is a variety, cleaves almost too easily to be durable.

Most gem minerals, however, lack such perfect cleavage and when it is desired to remove imperfect parts, or to reduce large pieces to smaller sizes, these materials are slitted as above described.

"RUBBING DOWN." The material being of nearly the dimensions of the finished piece, the next step is to "rub it down," as it is called, to approximately the shape and size desired. This rubbing down process was formerly done by means of a soft metal lap (sometimes of lead), charged with coa.r.s.e emery powder and water. Carborundum, being harder and sharper than emery, has replaced it very largely. Some of the softer materials, such, for example, as turquoise, are rubbed down on a fast flying carborundum wheel of similar type to those used in machine shops for grinding steel tools. These wheels rotate in a vertical plane and are kept wet. The laps before mentioned run horizontally. The carborundum wheels have the grains of carborundum cemented together by means of some binding material and this gradually crumbles, exposing fresh, sharp cutting edges. Various sizes of grain, and various degrees of hardness of the binding material, as well as various speeds, are needed to suit the many different materials rubbed down by the lapidary.

Some lapidaries rub down the harder and more valuable gems such as ruby upon diamond charged laps of bra.s.s or other metal.

CABOCHONS. The rubbing down process does not leave a facetted surface, but only a coa.r.s.e roughly rounded or flattened surface. If the material is to be left in some one of the flat-backed, rounded top forms known as cabochon cut, the surfaces need only to be smoothed (by means of very fine abrasives such as fine emery applied by means of laps, or even by fine emery or carborundum cloth), and they are then ready for polishing.