The Indian mines now yield very few stones. The United States Consular reports occasionally mention the finding of a few scattered crystals but the rich deposits were apparently worked out during the seventeenth century and the early part of the eighteenth century.

In 1725 and in the few following years the Brazilian diamond fields began to supersede those of India. Like the latter, the Brazilian fields were alluvial, that is, the materials were deposited by river action after having been carried to some distance from their original sources.

BRAZILIAN DIAMONDS. The diamonds of Brazil also resembled those of India in quality, being on the average better than those of the present South African mines. It may be added that even the African diamonds that are found in "river diggings" average better in quality than those of the volcanic pipes which form the princ.i.p.al source of the world's supply to-day. There seems to be a superabundance of iron oxide in the rocks of the African mines and in the diamonds themselves, imparting yellow or brownish tints to the material. The "River" stones seem to have lost this color to a considerable extent, if they ever had it. Possibly long extraction with water has removed the very slightly soluble coloring material. Whatever the cause of their superiority "River" stones have always been more highly regarded than stones from the volcanic pipes.

Brazil furnished the world's princ.i.p.al supply of diamonds until the discovery of the African stones in 1867. At present relatively small numbers of Brazilian stones reach the world's markets. Most of these come from the great Bahia district (discovered in 1844) rather than from the older mines of Brazil. The present Brazilian stones average of small size. They are, however, of very good quality as a rule. A few green stones are found in Brazil and these may be of an absinthe-green or of a pistachio-green tint.

AUSTRALIAN AND AMERICAN SOURCES. While a few diamonds now come on the market from New South Wales, and while an occasional stone is found in the United States (usually in glacial drift in the north central States, or in volcanic material somewhat resembling that of South Africa in Arkansas) yet the world's output now comes almost entirely from South Africa and mainly from the enormous volcanic pipes of the Kimberly district and those of the Premier Co. in the Transvaal.

SOUTH AFRICAN DIAMONDS. The nature of the occurrence of diamond in the "pipes" of South Africa is so well known to all who deal in diamonds to-day that but little s.p.a.ce need be devoted to it. The "blue ground,"

as the rock in which the diamonds are found is called, seems to have been forced up from below, perhaps as the material of a mud volcano, bringing with it the diamonds, garnets, zircons, and the fifty or more other minerals that have been found in the blue ground. The fragmentary character of some of these minerals would indicate that the blue ground was not their original matrix. How the diamonds originally crystallized and where, is still probably a matter for further speculation.

While at first the mines were worked, like quarries, from the surface, and while the great Premier mine is still so worked, most of the present mines are worked by sinking shafts in the native rock outside of the blue ground and then tunneling into the diamond-bearing rock laterally, removing it to the surface, allowing it to weather on the "floors" until it crumbles, then crushing and washing it and concentrating the heavy minerals by gravity methods. Large diamonds are then picked out of the concentrates by hand and small ones and fragments are removed by the "greasers," which are shaking tables heavily smeared with grease over which the concentrates are washed and to which diamond alone, of all the minerals in the concentrate, sticks. The grease is periodically removed and melted, and the diamonds secured. The grease can then be used again.

German South West Africa furnishes a considerable output of very small diamonds, which are found in dry sand far from any present rivers. These diamonds cut to splendid white melee and the output is large enough to make some difference in the relative price of small stones as compared to large ones. The South West African field seldom yields a stone that will afford a finished quarter-carat diamond.

RUBIES. Pa.s.sing on to the occurrence of the _corundum_ gems we will consider first the _ruby_. Most fine rubies come from Burmah. The district in which they are found is near Mogok. Practically all the fine pigeon-blood rubies come from this district. The fashion for red stones being for the time little in evidence rubies are not now in great demand. This cessation of demand can hardly be laid to the compet.i.tion of the scientific ruby, for the sapphire is now very much in vogue, yet scientific sapphires resemble the natural ones even more closely than do the rubies.

Siam furnishes a considerable number of dark garnet-like rubies. These do not command high prices. They are, however, sometimes very beautiful, especially when well cut for brilliancy, and when in a strong light.

Ceylon furnishes a few rubies and a few red corundums have been found in North Carolina.

The Burmese rubies appear to have been formed in a limestone matrix, but most of those obtained are gotten from the stream beds, where they have been carried by water after weathering out from the mother rock.

The rubies of Ceylon, too, probably originated in a limestone matrix, but are sought in stream gravels.

SAPPHIRES. Fine blue sapphires originate in Siam in larger numbers than in any other locality. Kashmir, in India, also supplies splendid specimens of large size. Ceylon, too, furnishes a good deal of sapphire, but mostly of a lighter color than the Kashmir sapphire. The Ceylon sapphires are found in the streams, but originate in rock of igneous origin.

Montana furnishes considerable quant.i.ties of sapphire, some of which is of very good color. It is, of course, as good as the Oriental if of equal color, being of the same material. The better colored sapphire from Montana is mined from the rock. Most of the sapphires found in the river gravels near Helena, Mont., are greenish blue or of other colors, and not of fine blue.

Queensland and Victoria in Australia supply considerable quant.i.ties of sapphire. When blue the Australian sapphire is usually too dark to be very valuable. The golden and other "fancy" sapphires of the trade come largely from the Ceylon gravels. Siam yields silky brown stones and some fine green ones. Some of the Australian sapphires when cut in certain directions yield green stones.

CHRYSOBERYL. Chrysoberyl of the variety Alexandrite now comes mainly from Ceylon, although formerly from the Ural Mountains.

The cat's-eyes also come chiefly from Ceylon.

The yellowish-green chrysoberyls (which jewelers sometimes call chrysolite) come both from Ceylon and from Brazil. They are frequently found in papers of "fancy sapphires" or "fancy color stones," so called.

SPINEL. Spinels are found along with ruby in Burmah and in Siam and they also occur in the gem gravels of Ceylon. Limestone is the usual matrix of spinel, although it is more often mined in gravels resulting from the weathering of the matrix.

TOPAZ. True topaz, of wine-yellow color, comes mostly from Brazil.

Ceylon also furnishes yellow topaz. Asiatic Russia furnishes fine large blue or blue-green crystals resembling aquamarine in appearance. Most of the topaz found in other localities is pale or colorless. Several of our western States, notably Utah, Colorado, and California, furnish colorless topaz. Mexico and j.a.pan also produce it. It is seldom cut, for, while producing a rather brilliant stone, it has little "fire" and is therefore not very attractive.

EMERALD AND AQUAMARINE. Beryl of the emerald variety is exceedingly scarce in the earth. Most of the best emerald comes from Colombia, South America. Large crystals of paler color come from the Urals.

Like ruby and spinel, emerald usually originates in limestone. One is tempted to suspect that these stones are of aqueous origin and that sapphires, and beryl, other than emerald, are more likely of igneous origin.

Beryls of the aquamarine type occur in many places, but usually of too pale a tint, or too imperfect, to be worthy of cutting. Fine gem beryl of blue and blue-green tints comes from Siberia and from several places in the Ural Mountains on their Asiatic slopes.

The Minas Geraes district of Brazil, famous for all kinds of gem stones, furnishes most of the aquamarine of commerce. The pegmat.i.te dikes of Haddam Neck, Conn., of Stoneham, Me., and of San Diego County, Cal., have furnished splendid aquamarine and other beryl. These dikes, according to the geological evidence, are the result of the combined action of heat and water. Thus both melting and dissolving went on together and as a result many fine gem minerals of magnificent crystallization were formed during the subsequent cooling. The longer the cooling lasted and the more free s.p.a.ce for growth the crystals had, the larger and more perfect they got. The author has himself obtained finely crystallized aquamarine and tourmaline from the Haddam, Conn., locality and the best specimens there occur in "pockets" or cavities in the coa.r.s.e granite. Within, these pockets are lined with crystals of smoky quartz, tourmaline, beryl, and other minerals. Sometimes crystals occur in mud or clay ma.s.ses inside the cavities and such crystals, having been free to grow uninterruptedly in every direction, were perfect in form, being doubly terminated, and not attached anywhere to the rock.

Madagascar has in recent years furnished the finest pink beryl, which has been named Morganite. Yellow beryl (Heliodor) and aquamarine also occur in Madagascar.

ZIRCON. Zircon comes on the market mainly from Ceylon. It deserves to be as much esteemed in this country as it is in Ceylon, for its optical properties are such that it is a very snappy stone. Some of the colors in which it occurs, such as the golden browns, lend themselves nicely to the matching of gems and garments, and, with the growth of education in such matters, jewelers would do well to get better acquainted with the possibilities of zircon and to introduce it to their customers. The supply from Ceylon is sufficient to justify popularizing the stone.

Small zircons are found in almost every heavy concentrate, as, for example, in the concentrates of the diamond mines of South Africa, and in those of gold placers in many places. The rough stones resemble rough diamonds in l.u.s.ter and are sometimes mistaken for diamonds.

GARNETS. Garnets of various types are found widely distributed in nature. Perhaps the Bohemian supply is best known, having furnished a host of small stones which have usually been rose cut for cl.u.s.ter work or made into beads. The Bohemian garnets are of the pyrope or fire-red type. Relatively few large stones of sufficient transparency for cutting are produced in the Bohemian mines. The so-called "Cape rubies" of the diamond mines of South Africa are pyrope garnets and some large and fine ones are found. The "Arizona rubies" are pyrope garnets, and while seldom of notable size, some are of very fine color, approaching deep rubies, and the color remains attractive by artificial light.

Almandite garnet, the "almandine" of the jeweler is less abundant than pyrope, when of gem quality. Ceylon furnishes some and India furnishes perhaps more. Brazil, from its prolific gem gravels at Minas Novas, supplies good almandite, and smaller quant.i.ties are found in many different localities.

Hessonite garnet, the cinnamon stone or "hyacinth" (incorrect) of the trade, comes mainly from Ceylon.

Andradite garnet, of the variety known as demantoid, from its diamond-like properties, and which is usually sold under the misleading name "olivine" in the trade, comes from the western slopes of the Ural Mountains.

TOURMALINE. Gem tourmaline comes from Ceylon, from Madagascar, from the Ural Mountains, from Brazil, from Maine, from Connecticut, and from California.

The Ceylon tourmalines are mostly yellow or yellowish green, sometimes fine olive-green. Those from the Urals may be pink, blue or green.

Brazilian tourmalines are usually green, but sometimes red. In fact in many localities several colors of tourmaline are usually found together and it may be that a single crystal will be green in most of its length but red or pink tipped. Some crystals have a pink core and a green exterior. The author has found both of the two latter types in the Haddam, Conn., tourmalines, and on one occasion was surprised to get back a wine-colored tourmaline from a cutter to whom he had sent a green crystal. There was but a thin sh.e.l.l of the green material on the outside of the crystal.

Some of the Madagascar tourmaline is of a fine brownish red, almost as deep as a light garnet, and much clearer than most garnet.

Would it not be fitting on account of its occurrence in several localities in the United States, for Americans to use more tourmaline in their jewels? The quality of some of the tourmalines of Maine, and of California especially, is not excelled by tourmaline from any other locality. Some of the Maine tourmaline is of a delightful, slightly bluish-green tint that almost approaches emerald.

KUNZITE. Spodumene, of the variety kunzite, comes from San Diego County, California.

QUARTZ GEMS. Coming now to the quartz gems we find amethyst and citrine, or golden quartz widely distributed so that only the localities that furnish the better grades of these stones need be mentioned. Siberia and Uruguay furnish fine amethyst. Brazil also furnishes large quant.i.ties of very good quality.

AMETHYST. The chief charm of the Siberian amethyst lies in its large red component, which enables it to change from a deep grape-purple by daylight to a fine red by artificial light that is rich in red rays, and poor in blue ones. The paler types of amethysts that were once esteemed, probably for lack of the rich deep variety, become gray in appearance and much less lovely under artificial light. India furnishes some amethysts, and papers of "fancy color stones" containing native cut gems from Ceylon, frequently contain amethysts, but Brazil, Uruguay, and Siberia furnish the great bulk of the stones that are regarded as choice to-day.

YELLOW QUARTZ. Citrine or golden quartz comes mainly from Brazil. The "Spanish topaz" is sometimes the result of heating smoky quartz from Cordova province in Spain. Our own western mountains furnish considerable yellow and smoky quartz fit for cutting.

ROSE QUARTZ. Rose quartz of the finest quality comes from South Dakota.

Bavaria, the Ural Mountains, and Paris, Maine, have also furnished it.

AGATE. Agates of the finest types, such as carnelian and sard, come princ.i.p.ally from Brazil and from India.

OPAL. Opals now come most largely from Australia, the Hungarian mines yielding but few stones at present. The fine black opals of New South Wales are unsurpa.s.sed by any that have ever been found elsewhere. Mexico furnishes considerable opal, and is notable for its fine "fire opal" or "cherry opal."

JADE. Most of the jade of the variety nephrite that is obtained to-day comes from several of the provinces of China or from Siberia or from Turkestan. A dark-green nephrite comes from New Zealand.

Jade of the jadeite variety, which is harder than nephrite and more highly valued, is rare. The best specimens come from Upper Burmah. It is also found in China and in Tibet.

PERIDOT. Peridot, and the brighter olivine or chrysolite, while of the same mineral species, do not seem to occur together. The darker bottle-green specimens come from the Island of St. John in the Red Sea.

It is said that many of the finer peridots now available have been recut from old stones mined many years ago.

Queensland supplies light-green chrysolite, and Arizona a yellowish-green variety. Light-green stones have been found near the ruby mines of Upper Burmah.

MOONSTONE. Moonstone comes mainly from Ceylon. The native cut specimens are sent here and recut, as, when native cut, the direction of the grain is seldom correct to produce the moonlight effect in symmetrical fashion. The native cutters apparently try to retain all the size and weight that is possible, regardless of the effect.