Chapter IV. The Revolution In The Ecclesiastical And Political Situation Due To The Rise Of Islam And The Doctrinal Disputes In The Eastern Church

In the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, the ecclesiastical and political situation altered completely. This change was due, in the first place, to the rise of the religion and empire of the Moslems, whereby a very large part of the Eastern Empire was conquered by the followers of the Prophet, who had rapidly extended their conquests over Syria and the best African provinces. Reduced in extent and exposed to ever fresh attacks from a powerful enemy, the Eastern Empire had to face new political problems. In the second place, as the provinces overrun contained the greater number of those dissatisfied with the doctrinal results of the great councils, the apparently interminable contests over the question as to the two natures of Christ came to an unexpected end.

This did not take place until a new cause for dispute had arisen among the adherents of Chalcedon, due to an attempt to win back the Monophysites by accounting for the unity of the person of Christ by positing one will in Jesus. Monotheletism at once became among the adherents of Chalcedon a burning question. It was finally condemned at the Sixth General Council, Constantinople, A. D. 683, at which Pope Agatho played a part very similar to that played by Pope Leo at Chalcedon, but at the cost of seeing his predecessor, Honorius, condemned as a Monothelete. It was the last triumph of the West in the dogmatic controversies of the East. The Eastern ecclesiastics, irritated at the diplomatic triumph of Rome, expressed their resentment at the Concilium Quinis.e.xtum, in 692, where, in pa.s.sing canons to complete the work of the Fifth and Sixth Councils, an opportunity was embraced of expressly condemning several Roman practices.

In the confusion resulting in the next century from the attempt of Leo the Isaurian to put an end to the use of images in the churches, the Roman see was able to rid itself of the nominal control which the Emperor still had over the papacy by means of the exarchate of Ravenna. When the Lombards pressed too heavily upon the papacy it was easy for the Bishop of Rome to make an alliance with the Franks, who on their side saw that it was profitable to employ the papacy in the advancement of their own schemes.

In this way arose that alliance between the pontiff and the new Frankish monarchy upon which the ecclesiastical development of the Middle Ages rests. But Iconoclasm suffered defeat at the Seventh General Council, 787, in which the doctrinal system of the East was completed. As this was the last undisputed general council, it may be taken as marking the termination of the history of the ancient Church. In following the further course of the Western Church there is no longer need of a detailed tracing of the history of the Eastern Church, which ceased to be a determining factor in the religious life of the West. The two parts of Christendom come in contact from time to time, but without formal schism they have ceased to be organically united.

106. The Rise and Extension of Islam

Mohammed (571-632) began his work as a prophet at Mecca about 613, having been called about three years earlier. He was driven from Mecca in 622 and fled to Yathrib, afterward known as Medina. Here he was able to unite warring factions and, placing himself at their head, to build up despotic authority over the surrounding country. He steadily increased the territory under his sway, and by conquests and diplomacy was able to gain Mecca in 629. Before his death in 632 he had conquered all Arabia. His authority continued in his family after his death, and the course of conquest went on. Damascus was conquered in 635; in 636 the Emperor Heraclius was driven to abandon Syria, which now fell into the hands of the Moslems. In 637 the Persians were forced back. In 640 Egypt was taken, and by 650 all between Carthage and the eastern border of Persia had been acquired for Islam. In 693, after a period of civil war, the work of conquest was resumed. In 709 all the African coast as far as the Straits of Gibraltar was gained, and in 711 the Moslems entered Spain. They at once made themselves masters of the peninsula with the exception of a small strip in the north in the mountains of Asturias, the kingdom of Gallicia. Crossing the Pyrenees, they attempted to possess Gaul, but were forced to retreat from central Gaul by Charles Martel at the battle at Tours and Poitiers in 732. They maintained themselves north of the Pyrenees until 759 when they were driven out of Narbonne and across the mountains.

Additional source material: _The Koran_, standard translation by E. H. Palmer, in the _Sacred Books of the East_; Stanley Lane-Poole, _Speeches and Table Talk of the Prophet Mohammed_.

(_a_) Mohammed, _Koran_ (translation of E. H. Palmer).

Surah CXII.

The Unity of G.o.d.

The following surah or chapter of the Koran, ent.i.tled The Chapter of Unity, Mohammed regarded as of value equal to two-thirds of the whole book. It is one of the shortest and most famous.

In the name of the merciful and compa.s.sionate G.o.d, say:

He is G.o.d alone!

G.o.d the Eternal.

He begets not and is not begotten!

Nor is there like unto Him any one.

Surah V, 73, 76, 109 _ff._

The teaching as to the nature and mission of Jesus.

[73.] Verily, those who believe and those who are Jews, and the Sabans, and the Christians, whosoever believes in G.o.d and the last day and does what is right, there is no fear for them, nor shall they grieve.

[76.] They misbelieve who say, Verily, G.o.d is the Messiah, the son of Mary; but the Messiah said, O Children of Israel, worship G.o.d, my Lord and your Lord. Verily he who a.s.sociates aught with G.o.d, G.o.d hath forbidden him paradise, and his resort is the fire, and the unjust shall have none to help them.

They misbelieve who say, Verily, G.o.d is the third of three; for there is no G.o.d but one, and if they do not desist from what they say, there shall touch those who misbelieve amongst them grievous woe.

Will they not turn toward G.o.d and ask pardon of Him? for G.o.d is forgiving and merciful.

The Messiah, the son of Mary, is only a prophet; prophets before him have pa.s.sed away: and His mother was a confessor.

[109.] When G.o.d said, O Jesus, son of Mary! remember my favors towards thee and towards thy mother, when I aided thee with the Holy Ghost, till thou didst speak to men in the cradle and when grown up.

And when I taught thee the Book and wisdom and the law and the gospel; when thou didst create of clay, as it were, the likeness of a bird, by my power, and didst blow thereon, it became a bird;(281) and thou didst heal the blind from birth, and the leprous by my permission; and when thou didst bring forth the dead by my permission; and when I did ward off the children of Israel from thee, and when thou didst come to them with manifest signs, and those who misbelieved among them said: This is naught but obvious magic.

And when I inspired the Apostles that they should believe in Him and in my Apostle, they said, We believe; do thou bear witness that we are resigned.

[116.] And when G.o.d said, O Jesus, son of Mary! is it thou who dost say to men, take me and my mother for two G.o.ds, beside G.o.d? He said: I celebrate thy praise! what ails me that I should say what I have no right to? If I had said it, Thou wouldest have known it; Thou knowest what is in my soul, but I know not what is in Thy soul; verily Thou art one who knoweth the unseen. I never told them save what Thou didst bid me, Worship G.o.d, my Lord and your Lord, and I was a witness against them so long as I was among them, but when Thou didst take me away to Thyself Thou wert the watcher over them, for Thou art witness over all.

Surah IV, 152.

Relation of Islam to Judaism and Christianity.

[152.] The people of the Book will ask thee to bring down for them a book from heaven; but they asked Moses a greater thing than that, for they said, Show us G.o.d openly; but the thunderbolt caught them in their injustice. Then they took a calf, after what had come to them of manifest signs; but we pardoned that, and gave Moses obvious authority. And we held over them the mountain at their compact, and said to them, Enter ye the door adoring, and we said to them, Transgress not on the Sabbath day, and we took from them a rigid compact.

But for that they broke their compact, and for their misbelief in G.o.ds signs, and for their killing the prophets undeservedly, and for their saying, Our hearts are uncirc.u.mcisednay, G.o.d hath stamped on them their misbelief, so that they cannot believe, except a fewand for their misbelief, and for their saying about Mary a mighty calumny, and for their saying, Verily we have killed the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, the apostle of G.o.d, but they did not kill Him, and they did not crucify Him, but a similitude was made for them. And verily, those who differ about Him are in doubt concerning Him; they have no knowledge concerning Him, but only follow an opinion. They did not kill Him, for sure! nay G.o.d raised Him up unto Himself; for G.o.d is mighty and wise!

[164.] O ye people of the Book! do not exceed in your religion, nor say against G.o.d save the truth. The Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, is but the apostle of G.o.d and His Word, which He cast into Mary and a spirit from Him; believe then in G.o.d and His apostles, and say not Three. Have done!

it were better for you. G.o.d is only one G.o.d, celebrated be His praise that He should beget a Son!

Surah LVI.

The delights of heaven and the pains of h.e.l.l.

This description of the future life has been taken as characteristic of the religion of Mohammed, but not quite fairly.

It is simply the Bedouins idea of complete happiness, and is by no means characteristic of the religion as the whole.

In the name of the merciful and compa.s.sionate G.o.d.

When the inevitable [day of judgment] happens; none shall call its happening a lie!abasingexalting!

When the earth shall quake, quaking! and the mountains shall crumble, crumbling, and become like motes dispersed!

And ye shall be three sorts;

And the fellows of the right handwhat right lucky fellows!

And the fellows of the left handwhat unlucky fellows!