_A._--The fire grate is made like a round table capable of turning horizontally upon a centre; a shower of coal is precipitated upon the grate through a slit in the boiler near the furnace mouth, and the smoke evolved from the coal dropped at the front part of the fire is consumed by pa.s.sing over the incandescent fuel at the back part, from which all the smoke must have been expelled in the revolution of the grate before it can have reached that position.

161. _Q._--Is a furnace with a revolving grate applicable to a steam vessel?

_A._--I see nothing to prevent its application. But the arrangement of the boiler would perhaps require to be changed, and it might be preferable to combine its use with the employment of vertical tubes, for the transmission of the smoke. The introduction of any effectual automatic contrivance for feeding the fire in steam vessels, would bring about an important economy, at the same time that it would give the a.s.surance of the work being better done. It is very difficult to fire furnaces by hand effectually at sea, especially in rough weather and in tropical climates; whereas machinery would be unaffected by any such disturbing causes, and would perform with little expense the work of many men.

162. _Q._--The introduction of some mechanical method of feeding the fire with coals would enable a double tier of furnaces to be adopted in steam vessels without inconvenience?

_A._--Yes, it would have at least that tendency; and as the s.p.a.ce available for area of grate is limited in a steam vessel by the width of the vessel, it would be a great convenience if a double tier of furnaces could be employed without a diminished effect. It appears to me, however, that the objection would still remain of the steam raised by the lower furnace being cooled and deadened by the air entering the ash-pit of the upper fire, for it would strike upon the metal of the ash-pit bottom.

163. _Q._--Have any other plans been devised for feeding the fire by self-acting means besides that of a revolving grate?

_A._--Yes, many plans, but none of them, perhaps, are free from an objectionable complication. In some arrangements the bars are made like screws, which being turned round slowly, gradually carry forward the coal; while in other arrangements the same object is sought to be attained by alternately lifting and depressing every second bar at the end nearest the mouth of the furnace. In Juckes' furnace, the fire bars are arranged in the manner of rows of endless chains working over a roller at the mouth of the furnace, and another roller at the farther end of the furnace. These rollers are put into slow revolution, and the coal which is deposited at the mouth of the furnace is gradually carried forward by the motion of the chains, which act like an endless web. The clinkers and ashes left after the combustion of the coal, are precipitated into the ash-pit, where the chain turns down over the roller at the extremity of the furnace. In Messrs. Maudslays' plan of a self-feeding furnace the fire bars are formed of round tubes, and are placed transversely across the furnace. The ends of the bars gear into endless screws running the whole length of the furnace, whereby motion is given to the bars, and the coal is thus carried gradually forward. It is very doubtful whether any of these contrivances satisfy all the conditions required in a plan for feeding furnaces of the ordinary form by self-acting means, but the problem of providing a suitable contrivance, does not seem difficult of accomplishment, and will no doubt be effected under adequate temptation.

164. _Q._--Have not many plans been already contrived which consume the smoke of furnaces very effectually?

_A._--Yes, many plans; and besides those already mentioned there are Hall's, Coupland's, G.o.dson's, Robinson's, Stevens's, Hazeldine's, Indie's, Bristow and Attwood's, and a great number of others. One plan, which promises well, consists in making the flame descend through the fire bars, and the fire bars are formed of tubes set on an incline and filled with water, which water will circulate with a rapidity proportionate to the intensity of the heat. After all, however, the best remedy for smoke appears to consist in removing from it those portions which form the smoke before the coal is brought into use. Many valuable products may be got from the coal by subjecting it to this treatment; and the residuum will be more valuable than before for the production of steam.

STEAM.

165. _Q._--Have experiments been made to determine the elasticity of steam at different temperatures?

_A._--Yes; very careful experiments. The following rule expresses the results obtained by Mr. Southern:--To the given temperature in degrees of Fahrenheit add 51.3 degrees; from the logarithm of the sum, subtract the logarithm of 135.767, which is 2.1327940; multiply the remainder by 5.13, and to the natural number answering to the sum, add the constant fraction .1, which will give the elastic force in inches of mercury. If the elastic force be known, and it is wanted to determine the corresponding temperature, the rule must be modified thus:--From the elastic force, in inches of mercury, subtract the decimal .1, divide the logarithm of the remainder by 5.13, and to the quotient add the logarithm 2.1327940; find the natural number answering to the sum, and subtract therefrom the constant 51.3; the remainder will be the temperature sought. The French Academy, and the Franklin Inst.i.tute, have repeated Mr. Southern's experiments on a larger scale; the results obtained by them are not widely different, and are perhaps nearer the truth, but Mr. Southern's results are generally adopted by engineers, as sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.

166. _Q._--Have not some superior experiments upon this subject been lately made in France?

_A._--Yes, the experiments of M. Regnault upon this subject have been very elaborate and very carefully conducted, and the results are probably more accurate than have been heretofore obtained. Nevertheless, it is questionable how far it is advisable to disturb the rules of Watt and Southern, with which the practice of engineers is very much identified, for the sake of emendations which are not of such magnitude as to influence materially the practical result. M. Regnault has shown that the total amount of heat, existing in a given weight of steam, increases slightly with the pressure, so that the sum of the latent and sensible heats do not form a constant quant.i.ty. Thus, in steam of the atmospheric pressure, or with 14.7 Lbs. upon the square inch, the sensible heat of the steam is 212 degrees, the latent heat 966.6 degrees, and the sum of the latent and sensible heats 1178.6 degrees; whereas in steam of 90 pounds upon the square inch the sensible heat is 320.2 degrees, the latent heat 891.4 degrees, and the sum of the latent and sensible heats 1211.0 degrees. There is, therefore, 33 degrees less of heat in any given weight of water, raised into steam of the atmospheric pressure, than if raised into steam of 90 Lbs.[1] pressure.

167. _Q._--What expansion does water undergo in its conversion into steam?

_A._--A cubic inch of water makes about a cubic foot of steam of the atmospheric pressure.

168. _Q._--And how much at a higher pressure?

_A._--That depends upon what the pressure is. But the proportion is easily ascertained, for the pressure and the bulk of a given quant.i.ty of steam, as of air or any other elastic fluid, are always inversely proportional to one another. Thus if a cubic inch of water makes a cubic foot of steam, with the pressure of one atmosphere, it will make half a cubic foot with the pressure of two atmospheres, a third of a cubic foot with the pressure of three atmospheres, and so on in all other proportions. High pressure steam indeed is just low pressure steam forced into a less s.p.a.ce, and the pressure will always be great in the proportion in which the s.p.a.ce is contracted.

169. _Q._--If this be so, the quant.i.ty of heat in a given weight of steam must be nearly the same, whether the steam is high or low pressure?

_A._--Yes; the heat in steam is nearly a constant quant.i.ty, at all pressures, but not so precisely. Steam to which an additional quant.i.ty of heat has been imparted after leaving the boiler, or as it is called "surcharged steam," comes under a different law, for the elasticity of such steam may be increased without any addition being made to its weight; but surcharged steam is not at present employed for working engines, and it may therefore be considered in practice that a pound of steam contains very nearly the same quant.i.ty of heat at all pressures.

170. _Q._--Does not the quant.i.ty of heat in any body vary with the temperature?

_A._--Other circ.u.mstances remaining the same the quant.i.ty of heat in a body increases with the temperatures.

171. _Q._--And is not high pressure steam hotter than low pressure steam?

_A._--Yes, the temperature of steam rises with the pressure.

172. _Q._--How then comes it, that there is the same quant.i.ty of heat in the same weight of high and low pressure steam, when the high pressure steam has the highest temperature?

_A._--Because although the temperature or sensible heat rises with the pressure, the latent heat becomes less in about the same proportion. And as has been already explained, the latent and sensible heats taken together make up nearly the same amount at all temperatures; but the amount is somewhat greater at the higher temperatures. As a damp sponge becomes wet when subjected to pressure, so warm vapor becomes hot when forced into less bulk, but in neither case does the quant.i.ty of moisture or the quant.i.ty of heat sustain any alteration. Common air becomes so hot by compression that tinder may be inflamed by it, as is seen in the instrument for producing instantaneous light by suddenly forcing air into a syringe.

173. _Q._--What law is followed by surcharged steam on the application of heat?

_A._--The same as that followed by air, in which the increments in volume are very nearly in the same proportion as the increments in temperature; and the increment in volume for each degree of increased temperature is 1/490th part of the volume at 32. A volume of air which, at the temperature of 32, occupies 100 cubic feet, will at 212 fill a s.p.a.ce of 136.73 cubic feet. The volume which air or steam--out of contact with water--of a given temperature acquires by being heated to a higher temperature, the pressure remaining the same, may be found by the following rule:--To each of the temperatures before and after expansion, add the constant number 458: divide the greater sum by the less, and multiply the quotient by the volume at the lower temperature; the product will give the expanded volume.

174. _Q._--If the relative volumes of steam and water are known, is it possible to tell the quant.i.ty of water which should be supplied to a boiler, when the quant.i.ty of steam expended is specified?

_A._--Yes; at the atmospheric pressure, about a cubic inch of water has to be supplied to the boiler for every cubic foot of steam abstracted; at other pressures, the relative bulk of water and steam may be determined as follows:--To the temperature of steam in degrees of Fahrenheit, add the constant number 458, multiply the sum by 37.3, and divide the product by the elastic force of the steam in pounds per square inch; the quotient will give the volume required.

175. _Q._--Will this rule give the proper dimensions of the pump for feeding the boiler with water?

_A._--No; it is necessary in practice that the feed pump should be able to supply the boiler with a much larger quant.i.ty of water than what is indicated by these proportions, from the risk of leaks, priming, or other disarrangements, and the feed pump is usually made capable of raising 3-1/2 times the water evaporated by the boiler. About 1/240th of the capacity of the cylinder answers very well for the capacity of the feed pump in the case of low pressure engines, supposing the cylinder to be double acting, and the pump single acting; but it is better to exceed this size.

176. _Q._--Is this rule for the size of the feed pump applicable to the case of high pressure engines?

_A._--Clearly not; for since a cylinder full of high pressure steam, contains more water than the same cylinder full of low pressure steam, the size of the feed must vary in the same proportion as the density of the steam. In all pumps a good deal of the effect is lost from the imperfect action of the valves; and in engines travelling at a high rate of speed, in particular, a large part of the water is apt to return, through the suction valve of the pump, especially if much lift be permitted to that valve. In steam vessels moreover, where the boiler is fed with salt water, and where a certain quant.i.ty of supersalted water has to be blown out of the boiler from time to time, to prevent the water from reaching too high a degree of concentration, the feed pump requires to be of additional size to supply the extra quant.i.ty of water thus rendered necessary. When the feed water is boiling or very hot, as in some engines is the case, the feed pump will not draw from a depth, and will altogether act less efficiently, so that an extra size of pump has to be provided in consequence. These and other considerations which might be mentioned, show the propriety of making the feed pump very much larger than theory requires. The proper proportions of pumps, however, forms part of a subsequent chapter.

[1] A table containing the results arrived at by M. Regnault is given in the Key.

CHAPTER III.

EXPANSION OF STEAM AND ACTION OF THE VALVES.

177. _Q._--What is meant by working engines expansively?

_A._--Adjusting the valves, so that the steam is shut off from the cylinder before the end of the stroke, whereby the residue of the stroke is left to be completed by the expanding steam.

178. _Q._--And what is the benefit of that practice?

_A._--It accomplishes an important saving of steam, or, what is the same thing, of fuel; but it diminishes the power of the engine, while increasing the power of the steam. A larger engine will be required to do the same work, but the work will be done with a smaller consumption of fuel. If, for example, the steam be shut off when only half the stroke is completed, there will only be half the quant.i.ty of steam used. But there will be more than half the power exerted; for although the pressure of the steam decreases after the supply entering from the boiler is shut off, yet it imparts, during its expansion, _some_ power, and that power, it is clear, is obtained without any expenditure of steam or fuel whatever.

179. _Q._--What will be the pressure of the steam, under such circ.u.mstances, at the end of the stroke?

_A._--If the steam be shut off at half stroke, the pressure of the steam, reckoning the total pressure both below and above the atmosphere, will just be one-half of what it was at the beginning of the stroke. It is a well known law of pneumatics, that the pressure of elastic fluids varies inversely as the s.p.a.ces into which they are expanded or compressed. For example, if a cubic foot of air of the atmospheric density be compressed into the compa.s.s of half a cubic foot, its elasticity will be increased from 15 lbs. on the square inch to 30 lbs. on the square inch; whereas, if its volume be enlarged to two cubic feet, its elasticity will be reduced to 7-1/2 lbs. on the square inch, being just half its original pressure. The same law holds in all other proportions, and with all other gases and vapors, provided their temperature remains unchanged; and if the steam valve of an engine be closed, when the piston has descended through one- fourth of the stroke, the steam within the cylinder will, at the end of the stroke, just exert one-fourth of its initial pressure.

180. _Q._--Then by computing the varying pressure at a number of stages, the average or mean pressure throughout the stroke may be approximately determined?

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 32. Diagram showing law of expansion of steam in a cylinder.]

_A._--Precisely so. Thus in the accompanying figure, (fig. 32), let E be a cylinder, J the piston, _a_ the steam pipe, _c_ the upper port, _f_ the lower port, _d_ the steam pipe, prolonged to _e_ the equilibrium valve, _g_ the eduction valve, M the steam jacket, N the cylinder cover, O stuffing box, _n_ piston rod, P cylinder bottom; let the cylinder be supposed to be divided in the direction of its length into any number of equal parts, say twenty, and let the diameter of the cylinder represent the pressure of the steam, which, for the sake of simplicity, we may take at 10 lbs., so that we may divide the cylinder, in the direction of its diameter, into ten equal parts. If now the piston be supposed to descend through five of the divisions, and the steam valve then be shut, the pressure at each subsequent position of the piston will be represented by a series, computed according to the laws of pneumatics, and which, if the initial pressure be represented by 1, will give a pressure of .5 at the middle of the stroke, and .25 at the end of it.

If this series be set off on the horizontal lines, it will mark out a hyperbolic curve--the area of the part exterior to which represents the total efficacy of the stroke, and the interior area, therefore, represents the diminution in the power of a stroke, when the steam is cut off at one- fourth of the descent. If the squares above the point, where the steam is cut off, be counted, they will be found to amount to 50; and if those beneath that point be counted or estimated, they will be found to amount to about 69. These squares are representative of the power exerted; so that while an amount of power represented by 50 has been obtained by the expenditure of a quarter of a cylinder full of steam, we get an amount of power represented by 69, without any expenditure of steam at all, merely by permitting the steam first used to expand into four times its original volume.