51. _Q._--Then if mechanical power cannot be lost, and is being daily called into existence, must not there be a daily increase in the power existing in the world?

_A._--That appears probable unless it flows back in the shape of heat or electricity to the celestial s.p.a.ces. The source of mechanical power is the sun which exhales vapors that descend in rain, to turn mills, or which causes winds to blow by the unequal rarefaction of the atmosphere. It is from the sun too that the power comes which is liberated in a steam engine.

The solar rays enable plants to decompose carbonic acid gas, the product of combustion, and the vegetation thus rendered possible is the source of coal and other combustible bodies. The combustion of coal under a steam boiler therefore merely liberates the power which the sun gave out thousands of years before.

FRICTION.

52. _Q._--What is friction?

_A._--Friction is the resistance experienced when one body is rubbed upon another body, and is supposed to be the result of the natural attraction which bodies have for one another, and of the interlocking of the impalpable asperities upon the surfaces of all bodies, however smooth.

There is, no doubt, some electrical action involved in its production, not yet recognized, nor understood; and it is perhaps traceable to the disturbance of the electrical equilibrium of the particles of the body owing to the condensation or change of figure which all bodies must experience when subjected to a strain. When motion in opposite directions is given to smooth surfaces, the minute asperities of one surface must mount upon those of the other, and both will be abraded and worn away, in which act power must be expended. The friction of smooth rubbing substances is less when the composition of those substances is different, than when it is the same, the particles being supposed to interlock less when the opposite prominences or asperities are not coincident.

53. _Q._--Does friction increase with the extent of rubbing surface?

_A._--No; the friction, so long as there is no violent heating or abrasion, is simply in the proportion of the pressure keeping the surfaces together, or nearly so. It is, therefore, an obvious advantage to have the bearing surfaces of steam engines as large as possible, as there is no increase of friction by extending the surface, while there is a great increase in the durability. When the bearings of an engine are made too small, they very soon wear out.

54. _Q._--Does friction increase in the same ratio as velocity?

_A._--No; friction does not increase with the velocity at all, if the friction over a given amount of surface be considered; but it increases as the velocity, if the comparison be made with the time during which the friction acts. Thus the friction of each stroke of a piston is the same, whether it makes 20 strokes in the minute, or 40: in the latter case, however, there are twice the number of strokes made, so that, though the friction per stroke is the same, the friction per minute is doubled. The friction, therefore, of any machine per hour varies as the velocity, though the friction per revolution remains, at all ordinary velocities, the same.

Of excessive velocities we have not sufficient experience to enable us to state with confidence whether the same law continues to operate among them.

55. _Q._--Can you give any approximate statement of the force expended in overcoming friction?

_A._--It varies with the nature of the rubbing bodies. The friction of iron sliding upon iron, has generally been taken at about one tenth of the pressure, when the surfaces are oiled and then wiped again, so that no film of oil is interposed. The friction of iron rubbing upon bra.s.s has generally been taken at about one eleventh of the pressure under the same circ.u.mstances; but in machines in actual operation, where a film of some lubricating material is interposed between the rubbing surfaces, it is not more than one third of this amount or 1/33d of the weight. While this, however, is the average result, the friction is a good deal less in some cases. Mr. Southern, in some experiments upon the friction of the axle of a grindstone--an account of which may be found in the 65th volume of the Philosophical Transactions--found the friction to amount to less than 1/40th of the weight; and Mr. Wood, in some experiments upon the friction of locomotive axles, found that by ample lubrication the friction may be made as little as 1/60th of the weight. In some experiments upon the friction of shafts by Mr. G. Rennie, he found that with a pressure of from 1 to 5 cwt. the friction did not exceed 1/39th of the pressure when tallow was the unguent employed; with soft soap it became 1/34th. The fact appears to be that the amount of the resistance denominated friction depends, in a great measure, upon the nature of the unguent employed, and in certain cases the viscidity of the unguent may occasion a greater r.e.t.a.r.dation than the resistance caused by the attrition. In watchwork therefore, and other fine mechanism, it is necessary both to keep the bearing surfaces small, and to employ a thin and limpid oil for the purpose of lubrication, for the resistance caused by the viscidity of the unguent increases with the amount of surface, and the amount of surface is relatively greater in the smaller cla.s.s of works.

56. _Q._--Is a very thin unguent preferable also for the larger cla.s.s of bearings?

_A._--The nature of the unguent, proper for different bearings, appears to depend in a great measure upon the amount of the pressure to which the bearings are subjected,--the hardest unguents being best where the pressure is greatest. The function of lubricating substances is to prevent the rubbing surfaces from coming into contact, whereby abrasion would be produced, and unguents are effectual in this respect in the proportion of their viscidity; but if the viscidity of the unguent be greater than what suffices to keep the surfaces asunder, an additional resistance will be occasioned; and the nature of the unguent selected should always have reference, therefore, to the size of the rubbing surfaces, or to the pressure per square inch upon them. With oil the friction appears to be a minimum when the pressure on the surface of a bearing is about 90 lbs. per square inch. The friction from too small a surface increases twice as rapidly as the friction from too large a surface, added to which, the bearing, when the surface is too small, wears rapidly away.

57. _Q._--Has not M. Morin, in France, made some very complete experiments to determine the friction of surfaces of different kinds sliding upon one another?

_A._--He has; but the result does not differ materially from what is stated above, though, upon the whole, M. Morin, found the resistance due to friction to be somewhat greater than it has been found to be by various other engineers. When the surfaces were merely wiped with a greasy cloth, but had no film of lubricating material interposed, the friction of bra.s.s upon cast iron he found to be .107, or about 1/10th of the load, which was also the friction of cast iron upon oak. But when a film of lubricating material was interposed, he found that the friction was the same whether the surfaces were wood on metal, wood on wood, metal on wood, or metal on metal; and the amount of the friction in such case depended chiefly on the nature of the unguent. With a mixture of hog's lard and olive oil interposed between the surfaces, the friction was usually from 1/12th to 1/14th of the load, but in some cases it was only 1/20th of the load.

58. _Q._--May water be made to serve for purposes of lubrication?

_A._--Yes, water will answer very well if the surface be very large relatively with the pressure; and in screw vessels where the propeller shaft pa.s.ses through a long pipe at the stern, the stuffing box is purposely made a little leaky. The small leakage of water into the vessel which is thus occasioned, keeps the screw shaft in this situation always wet, and this is all the lubrication which this bearing requires or obtains.

59. _Q._--What is the utmost pressure which may be employed without heating when oil is the lubricating material?

_A._--That will depend upon the velocity. When the pressure exceeds 800 lbs. per square inch, however, upon the section of the bearing in a direction parallel with the axis, then the oil will be forced out and the bearing will necessarily heat.

60. _Q._--But, with, a given velocity, can you tell the limit of pressure which will be safe in practice; or with a given pressure, can you tell the limit of velocity?

_A._--Yes; that may be done by the following empirical rule, which has been derived from observations made upon bearings of different sizes and moving with different velocities. Divide the number 70,000 by the velocity of the surface of the bearing in feet per minute. The quotient will be the number of pounds per square inch of section in the line of the axis that may be put upon the bearing. Or, if we divide 70,000 by the number of pounds per square inch of section, then the quotient will be the velocity in feet per minute at which the circ.u.mference of the bearing may work.

61. _Q._--The number of square inches upon which the pressure is reckoned, is not the circ.u.mference of the bearing multiplied by its length, but the diameter of the bearing multiplied by its length?

_A._--Precisely so, it will be the diameter multiplied by the length of the bearing.

62. _Q._--What is the amount of friction in the case of surfaces sliding upon one another in sandy or muddy water--such surfaces, for example, as are to be found in the sluices of valves for water?

_A._--Various experiments have been made by Mr. Summers of Southampton to ascertain the friction of bra.s.s surfaces sliding upon each other in salt water, with the view of finding the power required for moving sluice doors for lock gates and for other similar purposes. The surfaces were planed as true and smooth as the planing machine would make them, but were _not_ filed or sc.r.a.ped, and the result was as follows:

Area of Slide Weight or Pressure on Power required to move the rubbing rubbing Surface. Slide _slowly_ in muddy Surface. Salt Water, kept stirred up.

Sq. in. Lb. Lb.

8 56 21.5 " 112 44.

" 168 65.5 " 224 88.5 " 336 140.5 " 448 170.75

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2. Sketch of Slide. The facing on which the slide moved was similar, but three or four times as long.]

These results were the average of eight fair trials; in each case, the sliding surfaces were totally immersed in muddy salt water, and although the apparatus used for drawing the slide along was not very delicately fitted up, the power required may be considered as a sufficient approximation for practical purposes.

It appears from these experiments, that rough surfaces follow the same law as regards friction that is followed by smooth, for in each case the friction increases directly as the pressure.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND STRAINS SUBSISTING IN MACHINES.

63. _Q._--In what way are the strengths of the different parts of a steam engine determined?

_A._--By reference to the amount of the strain or pressure to which they are subjected, and to the cohesive strength of the iron or other material of which they are composed. The strains subsisting in engines are usually characterized as tensile, crushing, twisting, breaking, and shearing strains; but they may be all resolved into strains of extension and strains of compression; and by the power of the materials to resist these two strains, will their practical strength be measurable.

64. _Q._--What are the ultimate strengths of the malleable and cast iron, bra.s.s, and other materials employed in the construction of engines?

_A._--The tensile and crushing strengths of any given material are by no means the same. The tensile strength, or strength when extended, of good bar iron is about 60,000 lbs., or nearly 27 tons per square inch of section; and the tensile strength of cast iron is about 15,000 lbs., or say 6 3/4 to 7 tons per square inch of section. These are the weights which are required to break them. The crushing strain of cast iron, however, is about 100,000 lbs., or 44 1/2 tons; whereas the crushing strength of malleable iron is not more than 27,000 lbs., or 12 tons, per square inch of section, and indeed it is generally less than this. The ultimate tensile strength, therefore, of malleable iron is four times greater than that of cast iron, but the crushing strength of cast iron is between three and four times greater than that of wrought iron. It may be stated, in round numbers, that the tensile strength of malleable iron is twice greater than its crushing strength; or, in other words, that it will take twice the strain to break a bar of malleable iron by drawing it asunder endways, than will cripple it by forcing it together endways like a pillar; whereas a bar of cast iron will be drawn asunder with one sixth of the force that will be required to break or cripple it when forced together endways like a pillar.

65. _Q._--What is the cohesive strength of steel?

_A._--The ultimate tensile strength of good cast or blistered steel is about twice as great as that of wrought iron, being about 130,000 lbs. per square inch of section. The tensile strength of gun metal, such as is used in engines, is about 36,000 lbs. per square inch of section; of wrought copper about 33,000 lbs.; and of cast copper about 19,000 lbs. per square Inch of section.

66. _Q._--Is the crushing strength of steel greater or less than its tensile strength?

_A._--It is about twice greater. A good steel punch will punch through a plate of wrought iron of a thickness equal to the diameter of the punch. A punch therefore of an inch diameter will pierce a plate an inch thick. Now it is well known, that the strain required to punch a piece of metal out of a plate, is just the same as that required to tear asunder a bar of iron of the same area of cross section as the area of the surface cut. The area of the surface cut in this case will be the circ.u.mference of the punch, 3.1416 inches, multiplied by the thickness of the plate, 1 inch, which makes the area of the cut surface 3.1416 square inches. The area of the point of the punch subjected to the pressure is .7854 square inches, so that the area cut to the area crushed is as four to one. In other words, it will require four times the strain to crush steel that is required to tear asunder malleable iron, or it will take about twice the strain to crush steel that it will require to break it by extension.

67. _Q._--What strain may be applied to malleable iron in practice?

_A._--A bar of wrought iron to which a tensile or compressing strain is applied, is elongated or contracted like a very stiff spiral spring, nearly in the proportion of the amount of strain applied up to the limit at which the strength begins to give way, and within this limit it will recover its original dimensions when the strain is removed. If, however, the strain be carried beyond this limit, the bar will not recover its original dimensions, but will be permanently pulled out or pushed in, just as would happen to a spring to which an undue strain had been applied. This limit is what is called the limit of elasticity; and whenever it is exceeded, the bar, though it may not break immediately, will undergo a progressive deterioration, and will break in the course of time. The limit of elasticity of malleable iron when extended, or, in other words, the tensile strain to which a bar of malleable iron an inch square may be subjected without permanently deranging its structure, is usually taken at 17,800 lbs., or from that to 10 tons, depending on the quality of the iron. It has also been found that malleable iron is extended about one ten-thousandth part of its length for every ton of direct strain applied to it.

68. _Q._--What is the limit of elasticity of cast iron?

_A._--It is commonly taken at 15,300 lbs. per square inch of section; but this is certainly much too high, as it exceeds the tensile strength of irons of medium quality. A bar of cast iron if compressed by weights will be contracted in length twice as much as a bar of malleable iron under similar circ.u.mstances; but malleable iron, when subjected to a greater strain than 12 tons per square inch of section, gradually crumples up by the mere continuance of the weight. A cast-iron bar one inch square and ten feet long, is shortened about one tenth of an inch by a compressing force of 10,000 lbs., whereas a malleable iron bar of the same dimensions would require to shorten it equally a compressing force of 20,000 lbs. As the load, however, approaches 12 tons, the compressions become nearly equal, and above that point the rate of the compression of the malleable iron rapidly increases. A bar of cast iron, when at its breaking point by the application of a tensile strain, is stretched about one six-hundredth part of its length; and an equal strain employed to compress it, would shorten it about one eight-hundredth part of its length.

69. _Q._--But to what strain may the iron used in the construction of engines be safely subjected?

_A._--The most of the working parts of modern engines are made of malleable iron, and the utmost strain to which wrought iron should be subjected in machinery is 4000 lbs. per square inch of section. Cast iron should not be subjected to more than half of this. In locomotive boilers the strain of 4000 lbs. per square inch of section is sometimes exceeded by nearly one half; but such an excess of strain approaches the limits of danger.

70. _Q._--Will you explain in what way the various strains subsisting in a steam engine may be resolved into tensile and crushing strains; also in what way the magnitude of those strains may be determined?