_A._--It is not indispensable that the whole tire should be of steel; but a dovetail groove, turned out of the tire at the place where it bears most on the rail, and fitted with a band of steel, will suffice. This band may be put in in pieces, and the expedient appears to be the best way of repairing a worn tire; but particular care must be taken to attach these pieces very securely to the tire by rivets, else in the rapid revolution of the wheel the steel may be thrown out by the centrifugal force. In aid of such attachment the steel, after being introduced, is well hammered, which expands it sideways until it fills the dovetail groove.

531. _Q._--Is any arrangement adopted to facilitate the pa.s.sage of the locomotive round curves?

_A._--The tire is turned somewhat conical, to facilitate the pa.s.sage of the engine round curves--the diameter of the outer wheel being virtually increased by the centrifugal force of the engine, and that of the inner wheel being correspondingly diminished, whereby the curve is pa.s.sed without the resistance which would otherwise arise from the inequality of the s.p.a.ces pa.s.sed over by wheels of the same diameter fixed upon the same axle.

The rails, moreover, are not set quite upright, but are slightly inclined inward, in consequence of which the wheels must be either conical or slightly dished, to bear fairly upon the rails. One benefit of inclining the rails in this way, and coning the tires, is that the f.l.a.n.g.e of the wheels is less liable to bear against the sides of the rail, and with the same view the f.l.a.n.g.es of all the wheels are made with large fillets in the corners. Wheels have been placed loose upon the axle, but they have less stability, and are not now much used. Nevertheless this plan appears to be a good one if properly worked out.

532. _Q._--Are any precautions taken to prevent engines from being thrown off the rails by obstructions left upon the line?

_A_.--In most engines a bar is strongly attached to the front of the carriage on each side, and projects perpendicularly downward to within a short distance of the rail, to clear away stones or other obstructions that might occasion accidents if the engine ran over them.

CHAPTER IX.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

RESISTANCE OF VESSELS IN WATER.

533. _Q._--How do you determine the resistance encountered by a vessel moving in water?

_A._--The resistance experienced by vessels moving in water varies as the square of the velocity of their motion, or nearly so; and the power necessary to impart an increased velocity varies nearly as the cube of such increased velocity. To double the velocity of a steam vessel, therefore, will require four times the amount of tractive force, and as that quadrupled force must act through twice the distance in the same time, an engine capable of exerting eight times the original power will be required.[1]

534. _Q._--In the case of a board moving in water in the manner of a paddle float, or in the case of moving water impinging on a stationary board, what will be the pressure produced by the impact?

_A._--The pressure produced upon a flat board, by striking water at right angles to the surface of the board, will be equal to the weight of a column of water having the surface struck as a base, and for its alt.i.tude twice the height due to the velocity with which the board moves through the water. If the board strike the water obliquely, the resistance will be less, but no very reliable law has yet been discovered to determine its amount.

535. _Q._--Will not the resistance of a vessel in moving through the water be much less than that of a flat board of the area of the cross section?

_A._--It will be very much less, as is manifest from the comparatively small area of paddle board, and the small area of the circle described by the screw, relatively with the area of the immersed midship section of the vessel. The absolute speed of a vessel, with any given amount of power, will depend very much upon her shape.

536. _Q._--In what way is it that the shape of a vessel influences her speed, since the vessels of the same sectional area must manifestly put in motion a column of water of the same magnitude, and with the same velocity?

_A._--A vessel will not strike the water with the same velocity when the bow lines are sharp as when they are otherwise; for a very sharp bow has the effect of enabling the vessel to move through a great distance, while the particles of water are moved aside but a small distance, or in other words, it causes the velocity with which the water is moved to be very small relatively with the velocity of the vessel; and as the resistance increases as the square of the velocity with which the water is moved, it is conceivable enough in what way a sharp bow may diminish the resistance.

537. _Q._--Is the whole power expended in the propulsion of a vessel consumed in moving aside the water to enable the vessel to pa.s.s?

_A._--By no means; only a portion, and in well-formed vessels only a small portion, of the power is thus consumed. In the majority of cases, the greater part of the power is expended in overcoming the friction of the water upon the bottom of the vessel; and the problem chiefly claiming consideration is, in what way we may diminish the friction.

538. _Q._--Does the resistance produced by this friction increase with the velocity?

_A._--It increases nearly as the square of the velocity. At two nautical miles per hour, the thrust necessary to overcome the friction varies as the 1.823 power of the velocity; and at eight nautical miles per hour, the thrust necessary to overcome the friction varies as the 1.713 power of the velocity. It is hardly proper, perhaps, to call this resistance by the name of friction; it is partly, perhaps mainly, due to the viscidity or adhesion of the water.

539. _Q._--Perhaps at high velocities this resistance may become less?

_A_.--That appears very probable. It may happen that at high velocities the adhesion is overcome, so that the water is dragged off the vessel, and the friction thereafter follows the law which obtains in the case of solid bodies. But any such conclusion is mere speculation, since no experiments ill.u.s.trative of this question have yet been made.

540. _Q._--Will a vessel experience more resistance in moving in salt water than in moving in fresh?

_A._--If the immersion be the same in both cases a vessel will experience more resistance in moving in salt water than in moving in fresh, on account of the greater density of salt water; but as the notation is proportionably greater in the salt water the resistance will be the same with the same weight carried.

541. _Q._--Discarding for the present the subject of friction, and looking merely to the question of bow and stern resistance, in what manner should the hull of a vessel be formed so as to make these resistances a minimum?

_A._--The hull should be so formed that the water, instead of being away driven forcibly from the bow, is opened gradually, so that every particle of water may be moved aside slowly at first, and then faster, like the ball of a pendulum, until it reaches the position of the midship frame, at which point it will have come to a state of rest, and then again, like a returning pendulum, vibrate back in the same way, until it comes to rest at the stern. It is not difficult to describe mechanically the line which the water should pursue. If an endless web of paper be put into uniform motion, and a pendulum carrying a pencil or brush be hung in front of it, then such pendulum will trace on the paper the proper water line of the ship, or the line which the water should pursue in order that no power may be lost except that which is lost in friction. It is found, however, in practice, that vessels formed with water lines on this principle are not much superior to ordinary vessels in the facility with which they pa.s.s through the water: and this points to the conclusion that in ordinary vessels of good form, the amount of power consumed in overcoming the resistance due to the wave at the bow and the partial vacuity at the stern is not so great as has heretofore been supposed, and that, in fact, the main resistance is that due to the friction.

[1] This statement supposes that there is no difference of level between the water at the bow and the water at the stern. In the experiments on the steamer Pelican, the resistance was found to vary, as the 2.28th power of the velocity, but the deviation from the recognized law was imputed to a difference in the level of the water at the bow and stern.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE RESISTANCE OF VESSELS.

542. _Q._--Have experiments been made to determine the resistance which steam vessels experience in moving through the waters?

_A._--Experiments have been made both to determine the relative resistance of different cla.s.ses of vessels, and also the absolute resistance in pounds or tons. The first experiments made upon this subject were conducted by Messrs. Boulton and Watt, and they have been numerous, long continued, and carefully performed. These experiments were made upon paddle vessels.

543. _Q._--Will you recount the chief results of these experiments?

_A._--The purpose of the experiments was to establish a coefficient of performance, which with any given cla.s.s of vessel would enable the speed, which would be obtained with any given power, to be readily predicted. This coefficient was obtained by multiplying the cube of the velocity of the vessels experimented upon, in miles per hour, by the sectional area of the immersed midship section in square feet, and dividing by the numbers of nominal horses power, and this coefficient will be large in the proportion of the goodness of the shape of the vessel.

544. _Q._--How many experiments were made altogether?

_A._--There were five different sets of experiments on five different cla.s.ses of vessels. The first set of experiments was made in 1828, upon the vessels Caledonia, Diana, Eclipse, Kingshead, Moord.y.k.e, and Eagle-vessels of a similar form and all with square bilges and flat floors; and the result was to establish the number 925 as the coefficient of performance of such vessels. The second set of experiments was made upon the superior vessels Venus, Swiftsure, Dasher, Arrow, Spitfire, Fury, Albion, Queen, Dart, Hawk, Margaret, and Hero-all vessels having flat floors and round bilges, where the coefficient became 1160. The third set of experiments was made upon the vessels Lightning, Meteor, James Watt, Cinderella, Navy Meteor, Crocodile, Watersprite, Thetis, Dolphin, Wizard, Escape, and Dragon-all vessels with rising floors and round bilges, and the coefficient of performance was found to be 1430. The fourth set of experiments was made in 1834, upon the vessels Magnet, Dart, Eclipse, Flamer, Firefly, Ferret, and Monarch, when the coefficient of performance was found to be 1580. The fifth set of experiments was made upon the Red Rover, City of Canterbury, Herne, Queen, and Prince of Wales, and in the case of those vessels the coefficient rose to 2550. The velocity of any of these vessels, with any power or sectional area, may be ascertained by multiplying the coefficient of its cla.s.s by the nominal horse power, dividing by the sectional area in square feet, and extracting the cube root of the quotient, which will be the velocity in miles per hour; or the number of nominal horse power requisite for the accomplishment of any required speed may be ascertained by multiplying the cube of the required velocity in miles per hour, by the sectional area in square feet, and dividing by the coefficient: the quotient is the number of nominal horse power requisite to realize the speed.

545. _Q._--Seeing, however, that the nominal power does not represent an invariable amount of dynamical efficiency, would it not be better to make the comparison with reference to the actual power?

_A._--In the whole of the experiments recited, except in the case of one or two of the last, the pressure of steam in the boiler varied between 2-3/4 lbs. and 4 lbs. per square inch, and the effective pressure on the piston varied between 11 lbs. and 13 lbs. per square inch, so that the average ratio of the nominal to the actual power may be easily computed; but it will be preferable to state the nominal power of some of the vessels, and their actual power as ascertained by experiment.

546. _Q._--Then state this.

_A._--Of the Eclipse, the nominal power was 76, and the actual power 144.4 horses; of the Arrow, the nominal power was 60, and the actual 119.5; Spitfire, nominal 40, actual 64; Fury, nominal 40, actual 65.6; Albion, nominal 80, actual 135.4; Dart, nominal 100, actual 152.4; Hawk, nominal 40, actual 73; Hero, nominal 100, actual 171.4; Meteor, nominal 100, actual 160; James Watt, nominal 120, actual 204; Watersprite, nominal 76, actual 157.6; Dolphin, nominal 140, actual 238; Dragon, nominal 80, actual 131; Magnet, nominal 140, actual 238; Dart, nominal 120, actual 237; Flamer, nominal 120, actual 234; Firefly, nominal 52, actual 86.6; Ferret, nominal 52, actual 88; Monarch, nominal 200, actual 378. In the case of swift vessels of modern construction, such as the Red Rover, Herne, Queen, and Prince of Wales, the coefficient appears to be about 2550; but in these vessels there is a still greater excess of the actual over the nominal power than in the case of the vessels previously enumerated, and the increase in the coefficient is consequent upon the increased pressure of the steam in the boiler, as well as the superior form of the ship. The nominal power of the Red Rover, Herne, and City of Canterbury is, in each case, 120 horses, but the actual power of the Red Rover is 294, of the Herne 354, and of the City of Canterbury 306, and in some vessels the excess is still greater; so that with such variations it becomes necessary to adopt a coefficient derived from the introduction of the actual instead of the nominal power.

547. _Q._--What will be the average difference between the nominal and actual powers in the several cla.s.ses of vessels you have mentioned and the respective coefficients when corrected for the actual power?

_A._--In the first cla.s.s of vessels experimented upon, the actual power was about 1.6 times greater than the nominal power; in the second cla.s.s, 1.67 times greater; in the third cla.s.s, 1.7 times greater; and in the fourth, 1.96 times greater; while in such vessels as the Red Rover and City of Canterbury, it is 2.65 times greater; so that if we adopt the actual instead of the nominal power in fixing the coefficients, we shall have 554 as the first coefficient, 694 as the second, 832 for the third, and 806 for the fourth, instead of 925, 1160, 1430, and 1580 as previously specified; while for such vessels as the Red Rover, Herne, Queen, and Prince of Wales, we shall have 962 instead of 2550. These smaller coefficients, then, express the relative merits of the different vessels without reference to any difference of efficacy in the engines, and it appears preferable, with such a variable excess of the actual over the nominal power, to employ them instead of those first referred to. From the circ.u.mstance of the third of the new coefficients being greater than the fourth, it appears that the superior result in the fourth set of experiments arose altogether from a greater excess of the actual over the nominal power.

548. _Q._--These experiments, you have already stated, were all made on paddle vessels. Have similar coefficients of performance been obtained in the case of screw vessels?

_A._--The coefficients of a greater number of screw vessels have been obtained and recorded, but it would occupy too much time to enumerate them here. The coefficient of performance of the Fairy is 464.8; of the Rattler 676.8; and of the Frankfort 792.3. This coefficient, however, refers to nautical and not to statute miles. If reduced to statute miles for the purpose of comparison with the previous experiments, the coefficients will respectively become 703, 1033, and 1212; which indicate that the performance of screw vessels is equal to the performance of paddle vessels, but some of the superiority of the result may be imputed to the superior size of the screw vessels.

INFLUENCE OF THE SIZE OF VESSELS UPON THEIR SPEED.

549. _Q._--Will large vessels attain a greater speed than small, supposing each to be furnished with the same proportionate power?

_A._--It is well known that large vessels furnished with the same proportionate power, will attain a greater speed than small vessels, as appears from the rule usual in yacht races of allowing a certain part of the distance to be run to vessels which are of inferior size. The velocity attained by a large vessel will be greater than the velocity attained by a small vessel of the same mould and the same proportionate power, in the proportion of the square roots of the linear dimensions of the vessels. A vessel therefore with four times the sectional area and four times the power of a smaller symmetrical vessel, and consequently of twice the length, will have its speed increased in the proportion of the square root of 1 to the square root of 2, or 1.4 times.