The No is perhaps the most difficult Zen art for Westerners to enjoy.

The restrained action transmits virtually nothing of what is occurring onstage, and the poetry does not translate well. (As Robert Frost once observed, in translations of poetry, it is the poetry that is lost.) The music is harsh to the Western ear; the chorus interrupts at intervals that seem puzzling; the strange cries and dances befog the mind. Most important of all, the concept of _yugen _is not a natural part of Western aesthetics. The measured cadences of the No have, for the Westerner, all the mystery of a religious ceremony wrought by a race of pious but phlegmatic Martians. Yet we can admire the taut surface beauty and the strangely twentieth-century atonality of the form.

Its enigmatic remoteness notwithstanding, the No remains one of the greatest expressions of Ashikaga Zen art. Some of Zeami's texts are ranked among the most complex and subtle of all j.a.panese poetry. For six hundred years the No has been a secular Zen Ma.s.s, in which some of mankind's deepest aesthetic responses are explored.

Part III

THE RISE OF POPULAR ZEN CULTURE:

1573 TO THE PRESENT

CHAPTER TWELVE

Bourgeois Society and Later Zen

_G.o.d has given us the Papacy; let us enjoy it.

_ Pope Leo X, 1513

THE ASHIKAGA was the last era in j.a.pan entirely without knowledge of Europe. In 1542 a Portuguese trading vessel bound for Macao went aground on a small island off the coast of southern j.a.pan, and the first Europeans in history set foot on j.a.panese soil. Within three years the Portuguese had opened trade with j.a.pan, and four years after that Francis Xavier, the famous Jesuit missionary, arrived to convert the heathen natives to the Church. For the eclectic j.a.panese, who had received half a dozen brands of Buddhism over the centuries, one additional religion more or less hardly mattered, and they listened with interest to the new preaching, far from blind to the fact that the towns with the most new Christians received the most new trade. Indeed, the j.a.panese appear to have first interpreted Christianity as an exotic form of Buddhism, whose priests borrowed the ancient Buddhist idea of prayer beads and venerated a G.o.ddess of mercy remarkably like the Buddhist Kannon. In addition to bringing a new faith, the Portuguese, whose armed merchant ships were capable of discouraging pirates, were soon in full command of the trade between China and j.a.pan--a mercantile enterprise once controlled by Zen monks.

Still, the direct influence of Europe was not p.r.o.nounced. Although there was a brief pa.s.sion for European costume among j.a.panese dandies (similar to the Heian pa.s.sion for T'ang Chinese dress), the j.a.panese by and large had little use for European goods or European ideas. However, one European invention won j.a.panese hearts forever: the smoothbore musket. The j.a.panese, sensing immediately that the West had finally found a practical use for the ancient Chinese idea of gunpowder, soon made the musket their foremost instrument of social change. Overnight a thousand years of cla.s.sical military tactics were swept aside, while the j.a.panese genius for metal-working turned to muskets rather than swords. Musket factories sprang up across the land, copying and often improving on European designs, and before long j.a.panese warlords were using the musket with greater effect than any European ever had. The well-meaning Jesuits, who had arrived with the mission of rescuing j.a.panese souls, had succeeded only in revolutionizing j.a.panese capacity for combat.

The musket was to be an important ingredient in the final unification of j.a.pan, the dream of so many shoguns and emperors in ages past. The process, which required several b.l.o.o.d.y decades, was presided over by three military men of unquestioned genius: Oda n.o.bunaga (1534-1582), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616). The character of these three men is portrayed in a j.a.panese allegory describing their respective att.i.tudes toward a bird reluctant to sing.

n.o.bunaga, the initiator of the unification movement and one of the crudest men who ever lived, ordered bluntly, "Sing or I'll wring your neck." Hideyoshi, possibly the most skillful diplomat in j.a.panese history, told the bird, "If you don't want to sing, I'll make you."

Ieyasu, who eventually inherited the fruits of the others' labor, patiently advised the bird, "If you won't sing now, I'll wait until you will." Today the years dominated by n.o.bunaga and Hideyoshi are known as the Momoyama era, and the following two centuries of peace presided over by Ieyasu and his descendants are referred to as the Tokugawa.

After the Onin War, which had destroyed the power of the Ashikaga shogunate and the aristocratic Zen culture of Kyoto, j.a.pan had become a collection of feudal fiefdoms. The emperor and Ashikaga shoguns in Kyoto were t.i.tular rulers of a land they in no way governed. Into this regional balance of power came n.o.bunaga, who began his military career by killing his brother in a family dispute and taking control of his home province. Shortly thereafter he defeated a powerful regional warlord who had invaded the province with an army far outnumbering his own. The victory made him a national figure overnight and destroyed the balance of dynamic tension that had preserved the system of autonomous _daimyo_ fiefs. Rival _daimyo_, covetous of their neighbors' lands, rushed to enlist his aid until, in 1568, he marched into Kyoto and installed a shogun of his own choosing.

When the Buddhists on Mt. Hiei objected to n.o.bunaga's practices of land confiscation, he marched up the hill and sacked the premises, burning the buildings to the ground and killing every last man, woman, and child. This style of ec.u.menicity had been practiced often enough among the Buddhists themselves as one sect warred against the other, but never before had a secular ruler dared such a feat. This act and the program of systematic persecution that followed marked the end of genuine Buddhist influence in j.a.pan.

n.o.bunaga's armies of musket-wielding foot soldiers were on the verge of consolidating his authority over all j.a.pan when he was unexpectedly murdered by one of his generals. The clique responsible for the attempted coup was dispatched in short

order by n.o.bunaga's leading general, the aforementioned diplomat Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi, who later became known as the Napoleon of j.a.pan, was not of _samurai _blood and had in fact begun his military career as n.o.bunaga's sandal holder. He was soon providing the warlord with astute military advice, and it was only a matter of time until he was a trusted lieutenant. He was the first (and last) shogun of peasant stock, and his sudden rise to power caused aristocratic eyebrows to be raised all across j.a.pan. Physically unimposing, he was one of the seminal figures in world history, widely acknowledged to have been the best military strategist in the sixteenth-century world, and he completed the process of unification. The anecdotes surrounding his life are now cherished legends in j.a.pan. For example, a favorite military stratagem was to bring a recalcitrant _daimyo_ to the very brink of ruin and then fall back, offering an incredibly generous peace. However unwise such a tactic might be in the West, it had the effect in j.a.pan of converting a desperate enemy into an indebted subordinate.

With the country at peace, foreign trade flourishing, and a rigorous system of taxation in force, Hideyoshi found himself with an excess of time and money. His response was to launch the Momoyama age of j.a.panese art. With more power than any ruler since Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, he was in a position to direct taste, if not to dictate it. This time there were few Zen monks in attendance to advise him on expenditures (Hideyoshi continued to keep the Buddhists under close guard, a practice as pleasing to the Jesuits as his harem was displeasing), and his flamboyant taste had full reign. Momoyama art became, in many ways, the ant.i.thesis of Zen aesthetics. Hideyoshi ordered huge screens to be covered in gold leaf and decorated with explicit still-lifes painted in vibrant primary colors. Yet he was no stranger to Zen ideals; he kept a famous tea-ceremony aesthete as adviser and lavished huge sums on the special ceramics required for this ritual. In many ways, the Zen tea ceremony and tea ceramics became for Hideyoshi what Zen gardens, painting, and the No were for the Ashikaga. His patronage not only inspired a flourishing of ceramic art; the tea ceremony now became the vehicle through which Zen canons of taste and aesthetics were transmitted to the common man. The patronage of the Ashikaga had furthered Zen art among the _samurai _and the aristocracy; Hideyoshi's patronage opened it to the people at large.

Ironically, the Zen arts profited from Hideyoshi's military blunders as well as from his patronage. At one point in his career he decided to invade China, but his armies, predictably, never got past Korea. The enterprise was unworthy of his military genius, and puzzled historians have speculated that it may actually have been merely a diversion for his unemployed _samurai_, intended to remove them temporarily to foreign soil. The most significant booty brought back from this disastrous venture (now sometimes known as the "pottery campaign") was a group of Korean potters, whose rugged folk ceramics added new dimensions to the equipment of the tea ceremony.

Having maneuvered the shogunate away from n.o.bunaga's heirs, Hideyoshi became increasingly nervous about succession as his health began to fail, fearing that his heirs might be similarly deprived of their birthright. The problem was particularly acute, since his only son, Hideyori, was five years old and scarcely able to defend the family interests. In 1598, as the end approached, Hideyoshi formed a council of _daimyo_ headed by Tokugawa Ieyasu to rule until his son came of age, and on his deathbed he forced them to swear they would hand over the shogunate when the time came. Needless to say, nothing of the sort happened.

Tokugawa Ieyasu was no stranger to the brutal politics of the age, having once ordered his own wife's execution when n.o.bunaga suspected her of treason, and he spent the first five years after Hideyoshi's death consolidating his power and destroying rival _daimyo_. When Hideyoshi's son came of age, Ieyasu was ready to move. Hideyori was living in the family citadel at Osaka defended by an army of disenfranchised _samurai _and disaffected Christians, but Ieyasu held the power. In the ensuing bloodbath Hideyoshi's line was erased from the earth, and the Christians' faulty political judgment caused their faith eventually to be forbidden to all j.a.panese under threat of death.

Christianity continued to be practiced on a surrept.i.tious basis, however, as the Christians found shelter in, of all places, the Zen monasteries.

With the pa.s.sing of Hideyoshi's line, the Tokugawa family became the only power in j.a.pan, a land at last unified and with an imposed peace.

Viewing foreign influences as a source of domestic unrest, the Tokugawa moved to bring down a curtain of isolationism around their sh.o.r.es: Christian Europeans were expelled and j.a.panese were forbidden to travel abroad. Ieyasu established a new capital at Edo (now Tokyo) and required the local _daimyo_ to spend a large amount of time and money in attendance. Thus he craftily legitimatised his own position while simultaneously weakening that of the _daimyo_--a technique used with equal effect almost a century later by Louis XIV, when he moved his court from Paris to Versailles to contain the French aristocracy.

Content with the status quo, members of the Tokugawa family felt it could best be preserved by extreme conservatism, so they sent forth a volley of decrees formalizing all social relationships. Time was brought to a stop, permitting the Tokugawa to rule unhindered until the middle of the nineteenth century, when the country was again opened to foreign trade under the guns of American warships.

During the Tokugawa regime another Chinese "religion" a.s.sumed the place in the hearts of the shoguns that Buddhism had enjoyed in centuries past. This was Confucianism, more a philosophy than a religion, which in its original form had taught a respect for learning, the ready acceptance of a structured hierarchy, and unquestioning obedience to authority (that of both elders and superiors). The Tokugawa perverted Confucianism to establish a caste system among their subjects, separating them into the _samurai_ cla.s.s, the peasant cla.s.s, and the merchant and artisan cla.s.ses--the order given here denoting their supposed status. However, as the j.a.panese social system began to evolve, the idea backfired, causing great difficulties for the government. The reasons for this are interesting, for they bear directly upon the eventual role of Zen culture in j.a.panese life.

For centuries, j.a.pan's major source of income had been agriculture. The _samurai_ were local landholders who employed peasants to grow their rice and who were beholden to a local _daimyo_ for protection. Money played no large part in the economy, since most daily needs could be obtained by barter. But the sudden wealth brought into being by the European traders had nothing to do with the amount of rice a _samurai's _peasants could produce; it accrued instead to the merchants in port cities. Furthermore, the accommodations required to keep the _daimyo _and their families in the capital city of Edo called for artisans and merchants in great number. Thus the Tokugawa government had mistakenly decreed the agricultural _samurai_ and peasants the backbone of the economy at the very moment in history when j.a.pan was finally developing an urban, currency-based culture. Predictably, the urban merchants, who were at the bottom of the Confucianist social system, soon had their supposed social betters, the _samurai_, completely in hock.

The Tokugawa struggled hard to keep the townspeople, now the controllers of the economy, in their place. Merchants were forbidden to build elaborate houses or wear elaborate clothes, and they were expected to defer to the penurious _samurai _in all things. j.a.pan had never before had a bourgeoisie--the traditional divisions were aristocracy, warriors, and peasants-- and consequently popular taste had never really been reflected in the arts. Much to the dismay of the Tokugawa (and to the detriment of cla.s.sical Zen culture), this was changing. While the aristocrats and warrior families in Kyoto preserved the older arts of Zen, in the bourgeois city of Edo there were new popular art forms like the Kabuki theater and the woodblock print, both eons removed from the No and the monochrome landscape. Cla.s.sical Zen culture was largely confined to aristocratic Kyoto, while in boisterous Edo the townspeople turned to explicit, exciting arts full of color and drama.

In spite of this democratic turn of events, the Zen aesthetics of Kyoto continued to be felt, largely through the tea ceremony, which had been officially encouraged in the Momoyama age of Hideyoshi. Later in the Tokugawa era the poetic form of Haiku developed, and it too was highly influenced by the Zen idea of suggestiveness. Domestic architecture also maintained the ideals of Zen, as did Ikebana, or flower arranging, and the j.a.panese cuisine, which employed Zen ceramics. Thus Zen aesthetics seeped into middle-cla.s.s culture in many forms, tempering taste and providing rigid rules for much of what are today thought of as the traditional arts and crafts of the j.a.panese.

Traditional Buddhism did not fare well during the Momoyama and Tokugawa ages: the militaristic Buddhist strongholds were either put to rout or destroyed entirely during the Momoyama, and Confucianism had considerably more influence under the Tokugawa than did Buddhism. The great upsurge of Buddhism with its fiery teachers and believing shoguns was over, as the faith settled into empty ritual and a decidedly secondary station in a basically secular state. The only Buddhist sect demonstrating any vigor at all was Zen.

The brief flourishing of Zen during the Tokugawa era was actually a revival, for the faith had become static and uninspired during the years of n.o.bunaga and Hideyoshi. The formalized practice of Zen at the end of the seventeenth century was described by a visiting Jesuit Father:

_The solitary philosophers of the Zenshu sect, who dwell in their retreats in the wilderness, [do not] philosophize with the help of books and treatises written by ill.u.s.trious masters and philosophers as do the members of the other sects of the Indian gymnosophists. Instead they give themselves up to contemplating the things of nature, despising and abandoning worldly things; they mortify their pa.s.sions by certain enigmatic and figurative meditations and considerations [koan]

which guide them on their way at the beginning. . . . [s]o the vocation of these philosophers is not to contend or dispute with another with arguments, but they leave everything to the contemplation of each one so that by himself he may attain the goal by using these principles, and thus they do not teach disciples.1

_

The good Father was describing a Zen faith that had become a set piece, devoid of controversy but also devoid of life.

The man who brought Zen out of its slumber and restored its vigor was the mystic Hakuin (1685-1768), who revived the _koan _school of Rinzai and produced the most famous _koan_ of all times: "You know the sound of two hands clapping; what is the sound of one hand clapping?" Hakuin gave a new, mystical dimension to the Rinzai school of Zen, even as Hui-neng created nonintellectual Chinese Ch'an Buddhism out of the founding ideas of Bodhidharma. Hakuin was also a poet, a painter, and the author of many commentaries on the _sutras_. Yet even when he enjoyed national fame, he never lost his modesty or his desire for enlightenment.

Hakuin lived the greater part of his life in the small rural village of his birth. A sensitive, impressionable child, he was early tormented by an irrational fear of the fires of the Buddhist h.e.l.l as dwelt upon by the priests of his mother's sect, the Nichiren. For relief he turned to the Lotus Sutra, but nothing he read seemed to ease his mind. Finally he became a wandering Zen monk, searching from temple to temple for a master who could give him enlightenment. He studied under various famous teachers and gradually achieved higher and higher levels of awareness. At the age of thirty-two he returned to his home village and a.s.sumed control of the ramshackle local Zen temple, which he eventually made the center of Rinzai Zen in j.a.pan. Word of his spiritual intensity spread and soon novices were flocking to him. His humility and humanity were a shining light in the spiritual dark age of the Tokugawa, and he breathed life and understanding back into Zen.

Despite Hakuin, official Zen never regained its influence in j.a.pan.

Someday perhaps the modern-day Western interest in Zen will give it new life somewhere outside j.a.pan, but this life will almost certainly be largely secular. Indeed, the influence of Zen in the Momoyama and Tokugawa ages was already more p.r.o.nounced in the secular world than in the spiritual. The bourgeois arts of these later years were notably less profound than those of the Ashikaga, but the spirit of Zen spread to become infused into the very essence of j.a.panese life, making the everyday business of living an expression of popular Zen culture.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

The Tea Ceremony_

Chazen ichimi _(Zen and tea are one.) Traditional j.a.panese expression