Part 8
An ex-forewoman in bookbinding, who knew the London trade well, stated that much less trouble is taken with learners now than formerly. In her own case she was apprenticed without indentures for two years, and learned "all the branches right through," old work included.
Another forewoman in work stated she was in training for four years: two years at bookbinding, one year at vellum work, and one year at stationery.]
Of the firms about which we have information for bookwork and printers'
folding, seven require a three years' training; twenty, two years; thirty-three, one and a half years; nineteen, one year; two, fifteen months; and seven, periods under a year. Eleven firms have no settled apprenticeship time, advancement depending entirely on the quickness of the learner. In places where gold laying-on is done the same time is usually served as for the other branches, _i.e._, from a few weeks to three years. In the case of vellum work, seven firms require three years; eight, two years; three, one and a half years; one, one and a half to two years; two, six months; and eight, no settled time.
In some of these firms, however, a genuine attempt to teach apprentices is made;[56] and in at least one large and well-known London house the system of indenture has been revived, owing to the difficulty which was experienced in retaining girls after they became competent. On the other hand, several well-known firms have ceased to employ learners because they are too troublesome, and depend upon women trained elsewhere. But we have found that in only a very few cases is the beginner, whether an apprentice or not, thoroughly taught every process of her trade. She is generally put to one process and kept at it, so that the mechanical dexterity she may acquire is in no sense genuine trade skill.[57] This distinction between trade skill and mechanical dexterity in one process must be kept in mind as a fundamental consideration in every problem concerning the woman wage-earner.
[Footnote 56: Apprenticeship is still common in vellum-sewing where skill and intelligence are required, and in places where women are doing more than supplementary work, _e.g._ Edinburgh, a regular period of training varying from two to four years is agreed upon. Apprenticeship seems to be most common in Scotland. In London our investigation into vellum work, printers' folding, and bookwork only discovered seven indentured women apprentices, two of these being engaged in vellum work.
Curiously enough in paper-staining firms, although the processes are practically unskilled, indentures are signed for two years; the girl receives 4_s._ a week for the first year and a portion of her piece earnings for the second year. At the end of two years she is a full wage-earner and is paid by piece rates. What her earnings are it is difficult to discover; 12_s._ 6_d._ was given as an average, but this is probably too high. It is reported that she may make 6_d._ in less than an hour when the colours are mixed and she is finishing a job, whereas next day she will spend the whole morning before she earns her 6_d._]
[Footnote 57: _E.g._, one of the large stationery firms in London reports regarding machine ruling: "Girls come in and feed the machinery, and afterwards rise to wet the flannel. They never mind the machines, _e.g._, arrange pens and so on." Another interesting note is, "Men nearly always do illuminating, _e.g._, stamping crests, etc., in more than one colour, on notepaper, as the process requires more skill than women possess. If the women did it, the ladies would not like their notepaper." An employer defended the employment of women on the grounds of his own experience of one woman who "had been working at a secret process for years, and there is no fear of the secret being betrayed as she is without understanding or interest for the machine."]
The question of how much a girl learns during her time is a vital one.
Much depends on the forewoman. As one of the workers put it, "How much you learn depends on the forelady, and whether she takes a fancy to you; some girls will have a turn at everything, others only learn sewing or folding. Dress makes a great difference; the poorer you are, the less chance you have of getting on."
The obverse of this from the forewoman's point of view is that "girls if quick are taught all branches, but with some girls it is all you can do to teach them one." It seems the general opinion amongst all the older hands that the "training is not what it used to be;" and, certainly, the few instances we have come across of women who can do bookwork, vellum work, and also stationery work, are amongst the older hands. The complaint, however, that the trade was not properly taught, occurs in the evidence given to the Commission of 1843, when it seemed to be one of the princ.i.p.al grievances complained of. Masters, it was said by one worker, often took girls, pretended to teach them, and discharged them at the end of their time, when they had to go elsewhere to learn. Three girls gave evidence that they were tricked into serving from three to eight months for nothing, and came away no wiser. At another shop the employer expatiated on the thoroughness of the training offered by him; but seven of his journeywomen, aged nineteen, eighteen, seventeen, and sixteen, declared indignantly that they had not learnt their business thoroughly, and would never have gone to him if they had known his methods. The truth apparently is that in 1843, as to-day, some firms are better for apprentices than others, and that a generation ago a good firm doing general work offered better opportunities for training than good firms conducted under up-to-date conditions can now give.
The following table shows the changes that have been made in the conditions of apprenticeship by certain leading London firms.
+----------------------------------------------------------------+
TABLE SHOWING CHANGES IN PERIOD, ETC., OF TRAINING
IN PARTICULAR FIRMS IN LONDON.[58]
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
Period
Premium
Wages (per week)
and
during
Indentures.
Apprenticeship.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
1. STATIONER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
1867 Commission
2 years
--
--
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
25 years ago
2 years
No premium
12 months no pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
15 years ago
1
No premium,
6 months no pay,
years
no
12 months half
indentures
pay.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present
1
6 months 2_s._, 12
time[58]
years
months half pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
2. STATIONER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
20 years ago
2 years
No premium,
1 year no pay, 1
no
year half pay.
+-------------------+---------+ indentures +--------------------+
Till recently
1 year
6 months no pay,
6 months half pay.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
15
6 months 2_s._, 9
months
months half pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
3. PUBLISHER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
Till recently
2 years
No premium,
6 months 1_s._,
no
6 months 2_s._
indentures
6_d._,
6 months 4_s._,
6 months half pay.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
1
6 months 2_s._
years
6_d._,
6 months 4_s._, 6
months half pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
4. BOOKBINDER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
21 years ago
3 years
No premium,
6 months 1_s._, 12
no
months 3_s._, 18
indentures
months 6_s._
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
1
6 months 1_s._, 12
years
months 3_s._
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
5. PRINTER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
25 years ago
3 years
No premium,
18 months 2_s._,
no
18 months half
indentures
pay.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
1
1 month no pay,
years
5 month 2_s._,
12 months half
pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
6. STATIONER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
40 years ago
2 years
No premium,
12 months half
no
pay, 12 months
indentures
three-quarter
pay.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
1
12 months half
years
pay, 6 months
three-quarter
pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
7. PUBLISHER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
30 years ago
2 years
No premium,
No pay part,
no
2_s._ 6_d._
indentures
remainder.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
2 years
Half pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
8. BOOKBINDER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
20 years ago
1
No
1 year 1_s._,
years
information
6 months half pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
At present time
2 years
No premium;
12 months 3_s._,
no
12 months 4_s._
indentures
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
9. PUBLISHER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
22 years ago
1 year
No premium;
3 months no pay,
no
9 months 1_s._
+-------------------+---------+ indentures +--------------------+
At present time
2 years
6 months 2_s._,
18 months half
pay.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
10. PRINTER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
25 years ago
1 year
No premium;
1 year
no
no pay.
+-------------------+---------+ indentures +--------------------+
At present time
1 year
6 months 1_s._,
6 months 2_s._
or 3_s._
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
11. BOOKBINDER'S.
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
10 years ago
1
No premium;
6 months
years
no
no pay,
indentures
1 year half pay.
+-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+
At present time
1
9 months 2_s._
years
6_d._,
9 months 5_s._
+-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+
[Footnote 58: This information was procured in 1901.]
The important point, however, is not so much the nominal length of apprenticeship, but the fact that the work which an "apprentice" now does is less educative than it was, and that wage-earning considerations now enter at an earlier stage into the apprentice's thoughts.
[Sidenote: The learner as workwoman.]
The low wages paid to learners offer great temptations to employers to set these extra cheap workgirls upon certain "fat" kinds of work. Some kinds of work, _e.g._, gathering, have thus come to be regarded as learners' perquisites, and in one extreme instance a worker made as much money when a learner on half pay as she did subsequently on whole pay.[59]
[Footnote 59: These figures from typical houses showing proportions of learners and journeywomen are interesting:--
Workers. Learners.
A. 75 14 B. 87 19 C. 7 3 D. 8 3 E. 12 11 F. 26 20
These houses are engaged in various kinds of bookbinding and printing.]
In several cases we have been able to trace the exact amount gained by the employer:--
1. A. in the last sixteen weeks of her half-pay period made 3 18_s._ 6_d._, an average of 4_s._ 10 _d._ per week. For the next sixteen weeks, when a full hand, her average was 9_s._ 8_d._
2. B. in twenty-three weeks before she became a full hand made 4 9_s._ 10_d._, or an average of 3_s._ 10 _d._ per week. During the next twenty-three weeks her average was 7_s._ 0_d._, a few pence less than double.
3. C. in fifty-one weeks made 15 5_s._ 4_d._, practically 6_s._ per week; if on full wage, her average would have been 11_s._ 11_d._
4. D. in thirty-seven weeks made 10 19_s._ 5_d._, practically 6_s._ per week; if on full wage her average would have been 11_s._ 10_d._
5. E. in forty-seven weeks made 14 9_s._ 4_d._, or 6_s._ 2_d._ per week; if on full pay her average would have been 12_s._ 3 _d._
6. F. in forty-three weeks made 12 12_s._ 3_d._, 5_s._ 1_d._ per week; if on full pay her earnings would have been 11_s._ 8 _d._
It is obvious that when a worker is sufficiently expert to make an average of 11_s._ or 12_s._ on full pay, it is a great temptation to save on the bills by giving her as much work as possible at half-price.
The employer looks upon this profit as the return made to him for teaching the girl, or, to speak more correctly, for allowing her to pick up the trade in his shop. It really means that a heavy premium is being paid in instalments. Possibly, when small fixed wages are paid, the employer's profits are even higher, but in that case the learner has not that temptation to sacrifice quality to quant.i.ty, and to be content with "slapdash" work which is the inevitable consequence of a piecework system worked under such conditions, and which is specially injurious to the young hands.
[Sidenote: Compositors.]
The training given to women compositors varies very much. As is well known, boys are apprenticed to this trade for seven years at wages which usually begin at 8_s._ a week, and rise 2_s._ a year. In some cases, however, a proportion of their piece-rate earning is given in addition.
When Miss Faithfull started the Victoria Press, girls were indentured for four years, and paid a premium of ten guineas. During the first six months they received nothing; for the remaining three and a half years they were given two-third piece rates. By 1869, when Mr. Head was running the business, this system had been changed. In an article in the _Printers' Register_ for October 6th, 1869, we read that at the Victoria Press, apprenticeship, "a relic of the ignorance and shortsightedness of our forefathers, which is maintained in our own day chiefly by the prejudices of Trades Unions, is entirely abolished. Girls begin to earn at once," with the consequence that the work is much better. The Women's Printing Society started with an apprenticeship of three or four years, the wages rising from 2_s._ 6_d._ to 10_s._
At the present time the training varies in different houses, from one where the girls are regularly indentured for four years, pay a premium of 5, and receive 4_s._ for the first year and 5_s._, 6_s._, 7_s._ a week in the ensuing years, to one where, with a premium of three guineas, the training lasts for three months only, and the worker is put on piecework after that period.
Two women compositors who had served for four years gave it as their opinion that two years were sufficient to learn; during the remaining years "you are expected to do as much as a full hand and get only half wages."
It is obvious, however, that much depends on the amount of work taught, and the complaint is reiterated over and over again that girls will only learn the easy, plain work: "they want to make money at once."
[Sidenote: Women and technical cla.s.ses.]
Enquiries were addressed to the Secretaries of Technical Education Committees in every town in the kingdom where the printing and kindred trades are of any importance, asking--
"1. Whether, in connection with your technical and other schools, any provision is made for the training of women in the bookbinding or in any of the printing or stationery trades;
"2. Whether the cla.s.ses have been attended by any numbers of women; and
"3. Whether you have received at any time from employers statements showing the effect of such cla.s.ses upon these trades?"
Seventeen replied that no provisions were made, six that the matter was under consideration, but only in one case was it stated that cla.s.ses had been opened, and then the women had not taken advantage of them. The London County Council Technical Education Board has had only one application (to which it could not accede [60]) from a woman who desired to attend bookbinding cla.s.ses.
[Footnote 60: The woman was an amateur who had no connection with the trade, and the Board refused admission on that ground. See this Board's Special Report on Technical Instruction of Women.]
This shows that in these trades the school, so far as women are concerned, has not yet been brought into contact with the workshop.
Nominally the cla.s.ses are open to women actually engaged in the trade, but women do not attend. This seems to be partly owing to the att.i.tude of the men, and partly owing to the lack of interest on the part of the woman worker in the few facilities afforded to her by Technical Education Committees.
The Home Arts and Crafts a.s.sociation and kindred movements have taught women amateurs bookbinding and leather work in a good many centres, but this training has had no general industrial effect. The a.s.sociation for the Employment of Women has offered facilities for the training of women in working the linotype, but it has met with but scanty response. "It is work which needed more skill," said one employer, "than women possessed."[61]
[Footnote 61: We have heard since this was written that women are employed on linotype machines in a prosperous provincial newspaper and general printing office.]
Here again we have had evidence of the most conclusive nature to show that the work of women is special in its simplicity, and that the craftswoman is hardly to be found anywhere. And they seem to have accepted the position, and make no attempt to move out of it.[62]
[Footnote 62: This note is typical of a good many which occur in the reports of the investigators. "There are two girls now on the black-bordering machine whom the forewoman has offered to teach to place out by hand, but they won't learn it; it is too much trouble."]
2. WHY WOMEN DO NOT TRAIN.
Some explanation is required for the fact that women have so little ambition to become skilled, especially seeing that their lack of technical knowledge and their willingness to remain at work which is merely mechanical, _i.e._, folding, etc., explain their low wages, casual employment, and careless organisation.
[Sidenote: Marriage as an industrial influence.]
