_Conclusion._--Frau Braun sees in the machine the main cause of the development of woman's industrial employment.[17] A more recent writer, Mrs. Schreiner, takes exactly the opposite view:

The changes ... which we sum up under the compendious term "modern civilisation," have tended to rob woman, not merely in part, but almost wholly, of the more valuable of her ancient domain of productive and social labour; and where there has not been a determined and conscious resistance on her part, have nowhere spontaneously tended to open out to her new and compensatory fields.

It is this fact which const.i.tutes our modern "Woman's Labour Problem."

Our spinning-wheels are all broken; in a thousand huge buildings steam-driven looms, guided by a few hundred thousands of hands (often those of men), produce the clothings of half the world; and we dare no longer say, proudly, as of old, that we, and we alone clothe our peoples.[18]

It is a striking instance of the extraordinary complexity of modern industry that two distinguished writers like Frau Braun and Mrs.

Schreiner, both holding advanced views on the feminist question, should thus come to opposite conclusions as to the influence of the machine. In a sense, the opposition is more apparent than real. Mrs. Schreiner is thinking of production for use by the woman at home, and there is no question that production for use is being superseded by production for exchange. Frau Braun, in the pa.s.sage quoted, is writing of wage-earning employment. There can be little question that the evolution of machinery has favoured woman's employment. Woman has no chance against man where sheer strength is needed; but when mechanical power takes the place of human muscle, when the hard part is done by the machine, then the child, the girl, or the woman is introduced. The progressive restriction of child-labour has also favoured women, so that over the period covered by the factory statistics, the percentage of women and girls employed has increased in a very remarkable way.

It is possible to exaggerate the extent of the change made by the industrial revolution in taking women out of the home. We must remember that domestic service, the traditional and long-standing occupation of women, is always carried on away from the home of the worker, and does in fact (as it usually involves residence) divide the worker from her family far more completely than ordinary day work. The instances given in Chapter I. also show that not only agriculture, but various other industries, afforded employment to women, long before the industrial revolution, in ways that must have involved "going out to work." To the working cla.s.ses it was nothing new to see women work, and, in point of fact, we do not find even the employment of married women exciting much attention or disapproval at the outset of the factory system. In the non-domestic industries the question of the wife taking work for wages was probably then, as mainly it still is, a poverty question. The irregular employment, sickness or incapacity of the male bread-winner that result in earnings insufficient for family maintenance, occurred probably with no less frequency in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries than now, and these are causes that at all times drive married women to work, if they can get work to do. The cla.s.s that felt it most keenly as an evil and a wrong, were the hand-loom weavers whose earnings were so depressed that they could not maintain their families, and found at the same time that the labour of their wives and daughters was more in demand than their own.

Where the industry had been carried on by the family working together, and, for a time at least, had been sufficiently lucrative to afford a comparatively high standard of comfort, the disintegration of this particular type of organisation was, not unnaturally, resented as an outrage on humanity. The iron regularity of the factory system, the economic pressure that kept the workers toiling as long as the engines could run, the fixation of hours, were cruel hardships to a cla.s.s that had formed its habits and traditions in the small self-contained workshop, and made continuous employment a terrible strain on the married woman. As the home centres round the woman, the problem for the working woman has been, and is, one of enormous difficulty, involving considerable restatement of her traditional codes and customs.

Whatever may have been the social misery and disorder brought about by the industrial revolution, one striking result was an increase in the earning power of women. Proof in detail of this statement will be given in Chapter VI.; for the present it will suffice to point to the fact. The machine, replacing muscular power and increasing the productivity of industry, does undoubtedly aid the woman in quest of self-dependence. In the era of the great industry she has become to an increasing extent an independent wage-earner. Low as the standard of women's wages is, there is ample proof that it is on the whole higher under the factory system than under other methods, and as a general rule the larger and more highly organised factory pays higher wages than the smaller, less well-equipped.

The cotton industry, which took the lead in introducing the factory system, and is in England by far the most highly organised and efficiently managed among trades in which women predominate, has shown a remarkable rise of wages through the last century, and is now the only large industry in which the average wage of women is comparatively high. Another point is that factory dressmaking, which has developed in comparatively recent years, already shows a higher average wage than the older-fashioned dressmaking carried on in small establishments, and a much smaller percentage of workers paid under 10s. a week. Monsieur Aftalion, in a monograph comparing factory and home work in the French clothing trade, finds wages markedly higher under the factory system. Yet another instance is offered by Italy, where women's wages are miserably low, yet they are noticeably higher in big factories than in small.

The development of the single young woman's position through the factory system has been obscured by the abuses incidental to that system, which were due more or less to historical causes outside industry. The absence of any system of control over industrial and sanitary conditions undoubtedly left many factories to become centres of disease, overwork and moral corruption, and the victims of this misgovernment and neglect are a reproach that can never be wiped out. On the other hand, later experience has shown that decent conditions of work are easier to secure in factories than in small work places, owing to greater publicity and facility for inspection. The very fact of the size of the factory, its economic importance, and its almost dramatic significance for social life, caused attention to be drawn to, and wrath to be excited by, evil conditions in the factory, which would have been little noticed in ordinary small work places.

The initiation of the "great industry" resulted in a kind of searchlight being turned on to the dark places of poverty. State interference had to be undertaken, although in flat opposition to the dominant economics of the day, and the better sort of masters were impelled by shame or worthier motives to get rid of the stigma that clung to factory employment. Now the girl-worker has profited by this movement in a quite remarkable degree.

Domestic service is no longer her only outlook, and the conditions of domestic service have probably considerably improved in consequence. Her employment is no longer bound up with personal dependence on her own family, or personal servitude in her employer's.

The wage contract, though not, we may hope, the final or ideal stage in the evolution of woman's economic position, is an advance from her servile state in the mediaeval working cla.s.s, or parasitic dependence on the family. The transition thus endows her with greater freedom to dispose of or deny herself in marriage, and is an important step towards higher racial ideals and development. Grievously exploited as her employment has been and still is, the evolution of the woman wage-earner, her gradual achievement of economic individuality and independence, in however limited a degree, is certainly one of the most interesting social facts of the time. The remarkable intelligence and ability of Lancashire working people was noticed by Mrs. Gaskell in _Mary Barton_, as long ago as 1848. And to this day the Co-operative Movement and the Trade Union Movement flourish among Lancashire women as they do not anywhere else. The Workers'

Educational a.s.sociation draws many of its best students from these women who toil their ten hours in the mill and use their brains for study in the evening after work is over.

CHAPTER III.

STATISTICS OF THE LIFE AND EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN.

No very detailed or elaborate statistics will be here employed, the aim of this chapter being merely to draw attention to certain broad facts or relations disclosed by the Census and the Registrar-General's Report.

_The Surplus of Women._--It is a well-known fact that in this country women exceed men in numbers. The surplus increased slightly but steadily from 1851 to 1901, and remained almost stationary from 1901 to 1911. In 1901 and 1911 there were in every 1000 persons 484 males and 516 females.

The excess of females varies at different ages. The number of boys born exceeds the number of girls in a proportion not far from 4 per cent, sometimes a little more, sometimes a little less. But boy infants run greater risks at birth and appear to be altogether more susceptible to adverse influences, for their death-rate is usually higher up to 3, 4 or 5 years old. The age-group 5 to 10 varies from time to time; in 1901-1910 the average mortality of girls was the higher: in 1912 the average mortality of boys was very slightly higher. From 10 to 15 the female death-rate is higher than the male.

The age-group 15 to 20 shows very curious variations in the relative mortality of males and females. From 1894 onwards the males of that group have had a higher mortality than the females, whereas previous to that date the female mortality was the higher, in all years of which we have a record save two--1876 and 1890. The Registrar-General can suggest no explanation of this phenomenon.[19] It may be remarked, however, that girls generally now obtain more opportunity for fresh air and physical exercise than in former years, which may account for some of their comparative improvement in this respect; also that in the industrial districts a great improvement has taken place in the administration of the Factory Act since the appointment of women inspectors and the general raising of the standard after the Act of 1891, and girls may naturally be supposed to have profited more by this improved administration than have youths of the other s.e.x, who are not included under the Act when over 18 years, and in many cases pa.s.s into industries unregulated by law.

The following table shows the death-rates per 1000 of male and female persons in England and Wales, 1913, and the ratio of male per cent of female mortality at age periods, as calculated by the Registrar-General.

DEATH-RATES AT AGES, 1913.

+----------------------------------+ |Ages.| M. | F. |Ratio M. per| | | | | 100 F. | |-----|-------|-------|------------| | 0-1| 120 | 96 | 125 | | 0-5| 392 | 322 | 122 | | 5- | 31 | 31 | 100 | | 10- | 19 | 20 | 95 | | 15- | 27 | 25 | 108 | | 20- | 35 | 30 | 117 | | 25- | 46 | 38 | 121 | | 35- | 80 | 65 | 123 | | 45- | 150 | 115 | 130 | | 55- | 307 | 230 | 133 | | 65- | 645 | 511 | 126 | | 75- | 1404 | 1175 | 119 | | 85- | 2668 | 2410 | 111 | |-----|-------|-------|------------| |Total| 147 | 128 | 115 | +----------------------------------+

As might be expected from these figures, the Census shows that males are in excess of females in very early life, but are gradually overtaken, and in later years especially men are considerably outnumbered by women. The disproportion of women is mainly due to their lower death-rate, but also in part to the fact that so many men go abroad for professional or commercial avocations. Some of these are accompanied by wives or sisters, but a large proportion go alone.

The disproportion of women is more marked in town districts than in rural ones. This may be partly due to the lower infant death-rate in the country, for a high rate of infant mortality on an average affects more boys than girls. But no doubt the large demand for young women's labour in factories and as domestic servants is another cause of the surplus of women in towns. In rural districts there is a surplus of males over females up to the age of 25. The disproportion of women does not show any marked tendency to increase except among the elderly, the preponderance becoming increasingly marked towards old age. It would overload this chapter too much to give figures ill.u.s.trating the changes in the last half century; those who wish to make themselves acquainted with the matter can refer to the very full and interesting tables given near the end of Vol.

VII. of the Census, 1911.

_Marriage._--The preponderance of young women, though not very considerable in figures, is, however, in fact a more effective restriction of marriage than might be expected, because women are by custom more likely to marry young than men, and thus the numbers of marriageable young women at any given date exceed the corresponding numbers of men in a proportion higher than the actual surplus of young women in particular age-groups.

The old-fashioned optimistic a.s.sumption that women will all get married and be provided for by their husbands, cannot be maintained. It is possible, however, to be needlessly pessimistic on this head, as in a certain weekly journal which recently proclaimed that "two out of every three women die old maids." If we are to regard marriage as an occupation (an idea with which, on the whole, I disagree), it is still the most important and extensively followed occupation for women. In 1911 over 6-1/2 millions of women in England and Wales were married, or rather more than one-half the female population over 15; and considerably more than one-half of our women get married some time or other. In middle life, say from 35 to 55, three-fourths of all women are married. In early life a large proportion are single; in later life a large proportion are widows.

Or we might put it in another way. From the age of 20 to 35, only two out of every four women are married, nearly all the rest being still single, and a very small proportion widowed; from 35 to 55, three in every four women are married; over 55, less than two in every four are married, most of the others having become widows. The proportion of women married has increased since the previous Census, but has decreased slightly at all ages under 45.

The following table displays the proportion married and widowed per cent of the different age-groups.

+-------------------------------------+ | Ages. | Single.| Married.| Widowed.| |--------|--------|---------|---------| | 15-20 | 99 | 1 | 0 | | 20-25 | 76 | 24 | 0 | | 25-35 | 36 | 62 | 1 | | 35-45 | 20 | 75 | 5 | | 45-55 | 16 | 71 | 13 | | 55-65 | 13 | 59 | 28 | | 65- | 12 | 31 | 57 | | | | | | |All ages| 39 | 51 | 10 | +-------------------------------------+

If the figures were drawn in curves, it would be seen that the proportion of single women falls rapidly from youth onwards, and is quite small in old age; that the proportion married rises rapidly at first, remaining high for 20 or 30 years, and falls again, forming a broad mound-shaped curve; while the proportion widowed rises all the way to old age.

It will be seen that, even on the a.s.sumption that all wives are provided for by their husbands, which is by no means universally true, a very large proportion of women before 35 and after 55 are not thus provided for, and that an unknown but not inconsiderable proportion never marry at all. In the case of the educated middle cla.s.s, as Miss Collet pointed out in 1892, the surplus of women over men is considerably above the average, and consequently the prospect of marriage is less in this than in the working cla.s.s. "Granted an equal number of males and females between the ages of 18 and 30, we have not therefore in English society an equal number of marriageable men and women. Wherever rather late marriage is the rule with men--that is, wherever there is a high standard of comfort--the disproportion is correspondingly great. In a district where boy and girl marriages are very common, everybody can be married and be more or less miserable ever after: but in the upper middle cla.s.s equality in numbers at certain ages implies a surplus of marriageable women over marriageable men."[20]

In some quarters the adoption of professions, even of the teaching profession, by women, is opposed on the ground that women are thereby drawn away from marriage and home-making. It is difficult to understand how such an objection can be seriously raised in face of the facts of social life. The adoption of occupations by women may in a few cases indicate a preference for independence and single blessedness; but it is much more often due to economic necessity. It is perfectly plain that not all women can be maintained by men, even if this were desirable. The women who have evolved a theory of "economic independence" are few compared with the many who have economic self-dependence forced upon them. Human nature is far too strong to make it credible that any large number of women will deliberately decline the prospect of husband, home and children of their own for the sake of teaching little girls arithmetic or inspecting insanitary conditions in slums. If a woman has to choose between marrying a man she cares for and earning her own bread, I am sentimental enough to believe that nearly all women would choose the former. The choices of real life are seldom quite so simple. When a woman has to choose between an uncongenial marriage and fairly well-paid work, it is quite likely that nowadays she frequently chooses the latter. In former days the choice might easily have been among the alternatives of the uncongenial marriage, the charity, willing or unwilling, of friends and relations, and sheer starvation, not to mention that even the bitter relief of the uncongenial marriage, usually available in fiction, is not always forthcoming in real life. The case grows clearer every year, that women need training and opportunity to be able to support themselves, though not all women will do so throughout life.

_Occupation._--If we have any doubt of the fact that there is still "a deal of human nature" in girls and women, we have only to compare the Census statistics of occupation and marriage. We have already seen that the numbers married increase up to 45. As the number married increases the number occupied rapidly falls off. The percentage of women and girls over 15 who are occupied was, in 1911, 35.5; an increase of 1.0 since 1901.

This does not, however, mean that only a little more than one-third of all women enter upon a trade or occupation. In point of fact a very large proportion are workers in early youth, as the following tables show. In order to ill.u.s.trate the relation of occupation to marriage, we place the two sets of figures side by side.

+---------------------------------------+ | |Percentage|Percentage| | | Occupied.| Married. | |-----------------|----------|----------| |Girls aged 10-13 | 10 | .. | | " 13-14 | 113 | .. | | " 14-15 | 387 | .. | | " 15-16 | 576 | } | | " 16-17 | 668 | } | | " 17-18 | 719 | } 12 | | " 18-19 | 743 | } | | " 19-20 | 734 | } | |Women aged 20-25 | 620 | 241 | | " 25-35 | 338 | 632 | | " 35-45 | 241 | 753 | | " 45-55 | 231 | 709 | | " 55-65 | 204 | 584 | | " 65- | 115 | 313 | +---------------------------------------+

The highest percentage of employment therefore occurs at the age of 18.

The next table shows the proportions of workers in age-groups.

WOMEN AND GIRL WORKERS OVER TEN YEARS OLD.

+--------------------------------------+ | | Number. |Per cent of Total.| |-------|-----------|------------------| | 10-15 | 182,493 | 38 | | 15-20 | 1,156,851 | 239 | | 20-25 | 1,037,321 | 215 | | 25-35 | 1,057,275 | 219 | | 35-45 | 604,769 | 125 | | 45-55 | 422,464 | 87 | | 55- | 369,561 | 77 | | |-----------|------------------| | | 4,830,734 | 1000 | +--------------------------------------+

Over 49 per cent of the total are under 25, and are therefore in ordinary speech more commonly termed girl than women workers. The rise in the proportion married compared with the drop in the proportion occupied as age advances, indicates how strong the hold and attraction of the family is upon women. Conditions in factories are undoubtedly improved; many a girl of 20 or 22, perhaps earning 18s. a week, with her club, her cla.s.ses, her friends, and an occasional outing, has by no means a "bad time." On the other hand, the life of the married woman in the working cla.s.s is often extremely hard, taking into account the large amount of work done by them at home, cooking, cleaning, washing, mending and making of clothes, in the North also baking of bread, tendance of children and of the sick, over and above and all but simultaneously with the bringing of babies into the world. Moreover, the working girl is not under illusions as to the facts of life, as her better-off contemporary still is to some extent.

Taking all this into consideration, the Census results shown above form an illuminating testimony to the strength of the fundamental human instincts.

The distribution of women in occupations ill.u.s.trates both the deeply rooted conservatism of women and, at the same time, the modifying tendency of modern industry. The largest groups of women's trades are still their traditional activities of household work, the manufacture of stuffs, and the making of stuffs into clothes. Two-thirds of the women occupied are thus employed.

+------------------------------------------------------+ | | Number. | Per cent of | | | |Total occupied.| |----------------------------|---------|---------------| |Domestic offices and service| | | | (including laundry) |1,734,040| 359 | |Textiles | 746,154| 155 | |Dress | 755,964| 156 | +------------------------------------------------------+

It is convenient to picture to oneself the female working population as three great groups: the domestic group, the textile and clothing group, and the other miscellaneous occupations, which also form about one-third of the total. Now, while it is true that the two former groups, the traditional or conservative occupations of women, are still the largest, they are not, with the exception of textiles, increasing as fast as population, whereas some of the newer occupations, the non-textile industrial processes that have been transformed by machinery and brought within the capacity of women, are, though much smaller in numbers, increasing at a rapid rate. The following table shows the change from 1901 to 1911 in the most important industrial groups including women. It should be read bearing in mind that the increase of the female population over 10 in the same period is 126 per cent.

ENGLAND AND WALES, 1901-1911.

+------------------------------------------------------------+ | | Numbers. | | | Occupations of Women |-------------------|Percentage| | and Girls. | 1901. | 1911. | Change. | |-----------------------------|---------|---------|----------| |Domestic offices and service |1,690,722|1,734,040| +26 | |Textiles | 663,222| 746,154| +125 | |Dress | 710,961| 755,964| +63 | |Dressmakers | 340,582| 339,240| -04 | |Tailoresses | 117,640| 127,115| +81 | |Food, drink, and lodging | 299,518| 474,683| +585 | |Paper, books, and stationery | 90,900| 121,309| +335 | |Metals, machines, etc. | 63,016| 101,050| +604 | |Increase of female population| | | | | over 10 | .. | .. | +126 | +------------------------------------------------------------+

But even with the occupations I have dubbed "conservative," or traditional, modern methods are transforming the nature of the work done by women. The statistical changes in the so-called domestic group are an interesting ill.u.s.tration of the changes we can see going on in the world around us. Note especially the tendency towards a more developed social life outside the home indicated by the large percentage increase in club service, hotel and eating-house service; the tendency to supersede amateur by expert nursing, shown in the large increase in hospital and inst.i.tutional service; and the slight but perceptible tendency for household work to lose its domestic character. Not only do the charwomen show an increase much larger than that of the group total, while the domestic indoor servant has decreased, but a new sub-heading, "day servants," has had to be introduced. The laundry is fast becoming a regular factory industry, and shows a decrease in numbers, no doubt due to the introduction of machinery and labour-saving appliances.

CHANGES IN EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN CERTAIN DOMESTIC OCCUPATIONS.

+---------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | Numbers. | | | | | | | Occupation. |--------------------|Percentage| | | | | Change. | | | 1901. | 1911. | | | | | | | |-------------------------------|---------|----------|----------| |Hotel, eating-house, etc. | 45,711| 63,368 | +386 | |Other domestic indoor servants}|1,285,072|1,271,990}| +08 | |Day girls }| | 24,001}| | |College, club, etc. | 1,680| 3,347 | +992 | |Hospital, inst.i.tution, etc. | 26,341| 41,639 | +581 | |Caretakers | 13,314| 18,633 | +3995 | |Cooks, not domestic | 8,615| 13,538 | +571 | |Charwomen | 111,841| 126,061 | +127 | |Laundry | 196,141| 167,052 | -148 | +---------------------------------------------------------------+

Textiles, which as a whole have increased exactly in proportion to population, show a great variety in movement. The following shows the movement in the numerically more important groups.

+-------------------------------------------------------+ | | Numbers. | Percentage | | |-------------------| Change. | | | 1901. | 1911. | | |----------------------|---------|---------|------------| |Cotton-- | | | | | Card-room operatives| 46,135 | 55,488 | +203 | | Spinning | 34,553 | 55,448 | +605 | | Winding, warping | 64,742 | 59,171 | -86 | | Weaving | 175,158 | 190,922 | +90 | |Wool-- | | | | | Spinning | 35,782 | 45,310 | +266 | | Weaving | 67,067 | 67,499 | +06 | |Hosiery | 34,481 | 41,431 | +202 | |Lace | 23,807 | 25,822 | +85 | +-------------------------------------------------------+