[Ill.u.s.tration: A NICE MIXED FARM.]

It will thus be seen that some minor differences occur in the agreements. The first of the above list is most common. There are cases, however, where a progressive owner is anxious to get his land under wheat, and has financed the farmer, finding everything but labour. The landowner has provided a working plant, for which the farmer pays him from the proceeds of the crops, the payments extending over a term of seasons. Under this system men have started without any capital, and in a few years possessed a plant worth several hundred pounds, together with a snug banking account to their credit. Of course, in such cases the landowner knows his man, and knows he is honest, experienced, and capable. Usually the men have worked on the place as farm hands.

Under any conditions it is essential that the share farmer must have certain qualifications. It could not be expected that the landowner would consent to allow him to work valuable land otherwise. Practical experience of wheatgrowing is required, together with a good personal character. Local experience is also usually required, and in any case it would be the wisest course for any man to secure in his own interests such experience before endeavouring to start farming on shares. In Australia the man who is in earnest, and determined to go on the land, will find no difficulty in obtaining such experience. There is a good demand for willing farm workers at a rate of wages that will allow a thrifty man to put something by, while he is gaining a practical experience and a knowledge of local conditions. Once he has those he will not find it difficult to obtain the chance to start working on shares.

The share farmer has to find his own dwelling, and support himself and family. In some cases the owner erects the dwellings under special terms, but usually, as the farmer hopes to only be engaged for a few seasons share farming, the building is of a cheap nature, as the climate is temperate.

A man with $1440.00 or $1920.00 can purchase horses and obtain a plant, financing himself for a couple of years without depending too much on credit. Men have started with less and succeeded, as examples given later will show. It is not necessary to purchase a complete plant, and, as already stated, the more expensive implements can be purchased on terms. A man can handle 200 to 300 acres, and at the ruling prices for wheat of recent years, taking the average obtained by good farmers, the returns will run from $9.60 to $14.00 per acre and more for his share.

In addition, after ploughing and sowing is completed, a team of horses will earn good money at contract work in the district, carrying on the roads and so on, until harvest time. In this way a farmer in three or four years, perhaps less, will be in the position to take up land on his own account on a private or Government subdivision, and start in to build a permanent and comfortable home for himself and his family.

While share farming he has proved his capability and obtained the confidence that comes with experience, together with a valuable knowledge of local conditions, which is a great help in selecting land for purchase.

It will be seen that share farming affords exceptional opportunities for the energetic man with a small capital. He can start without sinking all his capital in rent or purchase money, and perhaps burdening himself with a heavy debt. In his own interests he has that to farm well, and indeed in most cases the terms of the agreement require conditions essential to good farming. Farmers are usually required to plough to a specified depth, and at times to prepare an area of fallow land for the succeeding crop. He is allowed to graze his horses on the property, or given the use of a paddock at a low rental.

[Ill.u.s.tration: THIS CROP YIELDED OVER 30 BUSHELS TO THE ACRE.]

One of the advantages of share farming, making towards amicable working, is that the interests of the landowner and the farmer are the same. Both are anxious to secure the greatest possible return from the land, and there is a direct community of interest. The landowner may be more concerned about maintaining the fertility of the soil, and securing good farming, but this is also to the interest of the farmer, and certainly affords him a valuable lesson for the future when he is working his own property. While the system beyond question is equitable and fair, and gives the farmer an excellent chance to achieve success that would not be the case where he was working on wages, or an ordinary tenant, admittedly it is also advantageous to the landowner. He secures a good return from his land, and avoids the anxiety and trouble often a.s.sociated with the employment of labour on a large scale, while he has not to embark a large sum of money in working plant.

In connection with a system such as this the evidence of an unbia.s.sed, independent outside body is, perhaps, more convincing than anything else. It is available.

In 1910 Australia was visited by the Scottish Agricultural Commission, a body of practical men from Scotland, who investigated rural conditions in the Commonwealth. The Commission toured the Commonwealth, visiting different wheat districts, and came into direct touch with local conditions. They paid great attention to the share farming, as its possibilities could not fail to impress them, and in their report on "Australia: Its Land, Conditions, and Prospects," they had the following to say:--

"After a year or two the newcomer finds himself ready for a start on his own account. If he possessed a few hundred pounds when he landed, he will now seek to become his own landlord in one or other of the ways open to him. If, however, he has yet too little money for that, he will be well advised to take no risks, but to be content meantime either with renting a farm or with farming on the share system. A man who is intelligent and industrious, who has had sufficient experience of farming in Australia, but who has not enough money to buy land, cannot do better than turn his attention to farming on shares.

"He can take up wheatfarming ... and if he has a good reputation, he will find no difficulty in getting on shares the kind of farm he wants."

HOW THE SETTLER IS a.s.sISTED.

The different Australian States fully recognise the great value to the community of the farmer, and special steps are taken to a.s.sist him in different ways.

Financial a.s.sistance is rendered through agricultural banks in West Australia and Queensland, the Credit Foncier in Victoria, and State Banks in New South Wales and South Australia. Through these Government inst.i.tutions advances are made to settlers. Full particulars in this regard are furnished in another booklet, obtainable by intending settlers.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FARMERS ON THE WAY TO A COUNTRY SHOW.]

In Australia all the railways are State-owned, and the endeavour is to carry farm produce and farming implements, fertilisers, &c., at the lowest possible rate compatible with the railways covering working expenses and depreciation of stock. Special rates are made for long distances. The rates vary in the different States, but it can be confidently said that they prove no hindrance to successful wheatgrowing. As all the wheat grown in Australia has to be carried to the seaboard on the railways, the particulars of success achieved, as already given, proves that. The Commonwealth Statistician furnishes the following particulars of State railway rates for agricultural produce in the different States, which serve as a guide to the settler:--

+------------------+-------------------------------------+ | |Charge per Ton in | | |truckloads for a haul of | | State. +-----------+------------+------------+ | | 50 miles. | 100 miles. | 200 miles. | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 1.20 | 1.80 | 2.28 | |Victoria | 1.32 | 2.04 | 2.52 | |Queensland | 1.10 | 2.10 | 2.64 | |South Australia | 1.48 | 2.10 | 3.10 | |Western Australia | 1.50 | 2.14 | 2.90 | |Tasmania | 1.62 | 2.32 | 3.12 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ |Average | 1.36 | 2.08 | 2.76 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+

+------------------+-------------------------------------+ | |Charge per Ton in | | |truckloads for a haul of | | State. +-----------+------------+------------ | | 300 miles. | 400 miles. | 500 miles.| +------------------+------------+------------+-----------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 2.52 | 2.72 | 2.88 | |Victoria | 2.96 | 3.36 | 3.76 | |Queensland | 2.88 | 3.12 | 3.36 | |South Australia | 4.10 | 5.10 | 6.10 | |Western Australia | 4.08 | 5.28 | 5.76 | |Tasmania | ... | ... | ... | +------------------+------------+------------+-----------+ |Average | 3.10 | 3.90 | 4.38 | +------------------+------------+------------+-----------+

The following table shows the rates on low-cla.s.s freight, which includes ordinary articles of merchandise, such as are particularly identified or connected with the primary industries:--

+------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | Charge per Ton for haul of | | State. +-----------+------------+------------+ | | 50 miles. | 100 miles. | 200 miles. | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 0.60 | 0.86 | 1.36 | |Victoria | 1.02 | 1.60 | 2.40 | |Queensland | 1.10 | 2.10 | 3.60 | |South Australia | 1.00 | 1.84 | 3.26 | |Western Australia | 1.20 | 2.00 | 3.40 | |Tasmania | 1.20 | 1.62 | 2.04 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+ |Average | 1.00 | 1.64 | 2.86 | +------------------+-----------+------------+------------+

+------------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | Charge per Ton for haul of | | State. +------------+------------+------------+ | | 300 miles. | 400 miles. | 500 miles. | +------------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | $ | $ | $ | |New South Wales | 1.86 | 2.36 | 2.86 | |Victoria | 2.84 | 3.24 | 3.64 | |Queensland | 4.40 | 5.60 | 5.60 | |South Australia | 4.26 | 5.26 | 6.26 | |Western Australia | 4.40 | 5.60 | 6.60 | |Tasmania | ... | ... | ... | +------------------+------------+------------+------------+ |Average | 3.62 | 4.42 | 5.48 | +------------------+------------+------------+------------+

The railways being publicly owned, there is always a demand for a reduction of rates when they show any undue profit over working expenses. The object of railway administration is to a.s.sist the producer.

The oversea trade of Australia runs into enormous figures, amounting in 1913 to $759,422,400.00. Extensive shipping facilities are available, and the producer has cheap and constant access to the world's markets.

The Australian wheatgrower is practically able to compete on equal terms in this regard with the farmer in the North and Midland counties of England.

The postal, telegraphic, and telephonic services are also State concerns. There is a universal penny post throughout Australia, telegrams are conveyed at cheap rates, and special facilities are provided for groups of neighbouring farmers to secure a united telephone service. The farmer is able to keep in close touch with the world's markets through these means.

The Departments of Agriculture in the different States have, of course, been created to advance the interests of the farming community. They are large and important departments, well equipped, and have proved of great practical value. Wheatgrowing being the most important crop in Australia, the industry receives special attention, and scientific investigation and experiment is being constantly made, and the results communicated to the wheatgrowers.

Agricultural colleges, where accommodation is provided for students, who are given theoretical and practical instruction in different branches of farming; experiment farms, where students are also trained; demonstration farms; and farmers' experiment plots are conducted by the Departments of Agriculture. Wheatbreeding and pathological and bacteriological work is carried on, and expert instructors work in the field a.s.sisting the farmer in every possible way. Bulletins dealing with different phases of work on the wheat farm, giving the results of experiments made, lists of varieties of wheat to plant and when to plant them, are issued in large numbers, and either given to the farmer free or sold at a nominal price. Agricultural gazettes and journals are also issued monthly, while topical information is made public through the columns of the press, which in Australia devotes an unusual amount of s.p.a.ce regularly to rural topics.

In New South Wales wheat experiments are conducted at the Cowra Experiment Farm, which is the headquarters, and at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, and Wagga, Bathurst, Glen Innes, Nyngan, and Yanco Farms. At Nyngan tests are made with a view to determining the suitability of the different varieties for cultivation in dry areas. The work at each farm consists of:--Pedigree plots of the main varieties grown on the farms; crossbreds in course of fixation for local conditions of soil and climate; a "stud variety trial," including all standard varieties, newly-introduced wheats, and samples sent for identification; "stud bulks" to provide seed for planting the farm areas which supply seed wheat for sale.

Since 1897 the Government agricultural experts have been endeavouring to determine the varieties of wheats most suitable for different districts, and to secure new types which return the best milling results locally, and their efforts have been very successful. In this connection the work of the late William Farrer, wheat experimentalist of the Department of Agriculture, New South Wales, has become world famous. His efforts were directed to the production of new varieties of greater milling value and more rust-resistant. Farrer's wheats, which rank among the most prolific grain varieties, are largely cultivated in Australia. Farrer's work is still carried on, and it has been proved that Australia can produce strong white wheat equal in flour production to the old varieties, and equal in strength to the famed standard Manitoba wheat. Australian wheat is eagerly sought after by British millers.

Farrer's work has been of direct and material value to the wheatgrowers, and his memory is held high in Australia. Prior to the introduction into the wheatgrowing areas of his crossbred wheats, growers depended mostly upon Purple Straw varieties. Hardly any varieties were known, and little attention was paid to the advisability of sowing certain varieties either early or late in the season. The advent of these new varieties has brought about a great change. Such an extensive range is provided that farmers can begin their sowing much earlier, and finish with other varieties much later than was the case before. The sowing season has been lengthened by more than two months. Not only is the sowing period considerably prolonged, but the harvesting period is prolonged also, for the late varieties sown early mature late, those sown in mid-season are harvested in mid-season, and the early varieties which have been sown late mature and are harvested early. Thus instead of the whole crop becoming ripe at the one time it ripens in stages, and is harvested accordingly. Such a system has immense advantages over the old days, when practically the whole crop ripened at once.

The foremost variety bred by William Farrer is "Federation," which has become a general favourite in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. This variety is a very heavy yielder, has good drought-resistant qualities, and withstands wind and weather so well that it may be said to be storm-proof. It would require a storm of exceptional violence to either cause the crop to lodge or the ear to shed its grain. Consequently it is most popular with growers, and a very large proportion of the wheat area is sown with this variety. It is estimated that in New South Wales and Victoria alone the increased value in yield obtained from this variety is worth over $2,880,000.00 annually to the growers. It is estimated that the yield of Federation is at least 3 bushels more per acre than the next best yielding variety in New South Wales.

Other of Farrer's wheats have been singularly successful, as an instance "Bunyip," which can be sown safely a month later than was the case with any variety previously. It must be recognised that the result of such experimental work is of great value to the grower.

New wheat varieties are bred at the experimental farms, and thoroughly tested and proved before they are put out to the farmer. In New South Wales they are then grown on farmer's experimental plots. The State is divided into divisions, and in each an inspector supervises the sowing and cultivation of these plots, which are situated on private farms by special arrangement, the farmer carrying out the work and the department finding seed, manure, and supervision, usually near the roadside, where the plots can be seen by district farmers and progress noted. The inspector advises growers generally, while the plots are a silent teacher all the time. They have proved a valuable medium of practical education amongst the farming community, special attention being given to cultural methods. In 1911-12 plots were cultivated in New South Wales in eighty-three districts. In 1911 there were seventy-two farmers'

plots in Victoria on which manurial and variety wheat trials were conducted.

In the latter State, however, a change has been made, and the majority of these plots have been discontinued, and a commencement made towards a policy of concentration in experimental investigation. It was decided to establish a Central Research Farm at Werribee, on which the initiative with regard to all experimental and research work is undertaken, while other State farms and the Agricultural College will be used as district experiment stations. The work at the Central Research Farm is intended to confer on agriculture the benefits of the most scientific advances by the prosecution of investigations and trials under practical and accurately-recorded conditions concerning problems involved in increasing the agricultural output. Attention will be given to improvement of wheat, soil renovation, fertilising and tillage methods, rotation of crops, &c. The farm is within 18 miles of the capital city, Melbourne, and is easy of access by farmers from all parts of the State.

Much of the soil closely resembles in physical character and chemical a.n.a.lysis that of the princ.i.p.al wheatgrowing districts. At Longerenong Agricultural College and the Rutherglen Viticultural College attention is given to the improvement of wheat by systematic selection, crossbreeding and hybridisation in one case, and the fixation and testing of new crossbred wheats in the other.

South Australia also has its Government Agricultural College, where extensive wheat experiments are conducted. The college has been of the greatest benefit to the farming community. In that State there are several demonstration and experiment farms established by the State, including the Parafield Wheat Research Station, 170 acres in extent, which is set apart for the raising of high-grade seed wheat for distribution amongst growers, and the raising of new varieties of wheat by crossbreeding and selection.

In Western Australia several State farms were established for the purpose of demonstrating the possibilities of farming on up-to-date principles in the different districts. Having achieved that object as far as pioneering work is concerned, they are now maintained as experiment stations for the production of purebred cereals, &c. At Narrogin State Farm students are accepted for instruction in practical agriculture.

Queensland has its Agricultural College and State Farms. Although the area under wheat has not yet attained large dimensions in that State, princ.i.p.ally because stockraising proves so profitable, good average yields are obtained as compared with the other States, and considerable scientific attention is being devoted to wheat culture. At the Roma State Farm and Hermitage State Farm extensive wheat experiments are carried out in the way of manurial trials, variety tests, and methods of tillage. The greater portion of the State Farm, Hermitage, is devoted to the production of seed wheat true to type, thus making available a supply of tested seed for the growers.

Agricultural High Schools are also established in some States, and agricultural teaching and agricultural education extends from the cla.s.ses in the State Public Schools, through the High Schools, Agricultural Colleges, and finally the University.

Agricultural Societies exist in practically every farming district in Australia. They are usually subsidised by the various State Governments, and conduct annual agricultural shows, which are a source of education and social entertainment. They are the leading functions in the different country districts. Usually experts from the Departments of Agriculture attend these shows--at times a special exhibit is made by the State Experimental Farms--and lecture on agriculture. In the capital cities Royal Agricultural Societies hold annual shows, which are magnificent exemplifications of the resources of the States and the progress in agriculture. Wheat compet.i.tions are naturally a strong feature of these exhibitions.

South Australia led the way in the formation of an Agricultural Bureau, which has branches throughout the country districts. The members meet regularly, and discuss farming subjects, are periodically addressed by officers of the Department of Agriculture, and also hold an annual conference. The bureau has proved a valuable means of education, as it brings the farmers together, and engenders a spirit of co-operation and mutual a.s.sistance. In New South Wales an Agricultural Bureau was formed within recent years, and is now well established, having nearly 100 branches. Farmers' unions and a.s.sociations are also powerful bodies in Australia, exercising both an educational and political influence.

SOCIAL LIFE IN AUSTRALIA.

Australia is essentially a "White Man's Country." Over 90 per cent. of the total population of 4,872,059 people are of British descent. The people are free and democratic, and their laws progressive and advanced; in industrial and social legislation Australia leads the world. It is essentially a peaceful country, and so far has been blessed by never having war within its boundaries. Respect for the law, and absence of violent crime is a marked feature of life in the Commonwealth. In the country districts crime is practically unknown, and it is common for houses to be left unguarded, and locked doors are rare. The people are kindly and hospitable, and there is very little cla.s.s distinction. In its place is an equality of opportunity that opens all avenues to those with ambition. Working men and their sons frequently rise to the highest positions the States have to offer, and such an occurrence is so common as to fail to arouse any comment. In politics there is a universal suffrage, every man and woman having a voice in the government of the country, therefore the laws are framed for the good of the majority. No land offers better or freer social conditions to the homemaker.

Advantages offer not only to the settler himself, but he has every reason to hope for a happy destiny for his children.

As has been stated, the climate is exceptionally healthy and mild. The dry atmosphere, long hours of sunshine and open-air life tend to health and happiness. Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that the fertility of the soil and the congenial climate has greatly lead to easy-going methods of farming, which are not altogether in the interests of the country. Few countries could carry on their rural industries with similar easy methods; none would leave the people as prosperous as the people of Australia.