He will soon want a vehicle to move about in, a sulky ($72.00 to $96.00), a light horse and harness, saddle, &c. Minor implements and tools for fencing, carpentering, building, and so on will be wanted, and altogether it would be well to reckon that working plant generally will cost about $2400.00. To work a large area would not cost more proportionately by any means; it is reckoned that an area of 600 acres of cultivation costs about $3360.00 for working plant.

All the above parts of the plant would not be required at once, and the above amounts can be greatly reduced by obtaining smaller implements, lighter horses, and so on. Furthermore, it is not necessary that the full amount should be paid down for the plant. Cash would have to be paid for the horses, but machinery and most of the balance of the plant can be acquired on terms, part payment being in cash, while the balance runs over till after harvest, or even over two seasons. Usually one-third is paid in cash, and the balance about February or March, after the farmer has received the money for his crop. It is to the interest of the machinery firms, storekeepers, and others who do business with the wheatfarmer to help him as far as possible, especially in the early years, and in Australia, when a man shows he is honest and hard-working, he will receive every consideration in this direction.

The wheatgrower has also to allow for the keep of himself and his family while waiting for his crop to ripen.

In the above plant a stripper-harvester has been allowed for, but if a stripper and winnower be used instead, the cost for implements would be about $120.00 less. On the other hand, more labour would be required to work them. The utilisation of the stripper-harvester is the most popular method of taking off a wheat crop.

The stripper is an Australian invention. It is a machine drawn through the ripe standing crop by three or four horses attached to its side. The horses walk in the stubble of the harvested portion. The ripe ears coming within reach of the machine, which has a 5-ft. cut, are gathered by a comb, and directed to a cutting plate, where the beater drum cuts them from the straw and threshes the grain out. At the same time the grain, with the chaff and some straw, is thrown into a receptacle at the back of the machine. When this is full the stripper is driven to a picked place in the paddock and emptied. Here a winnower has been placed, and the mixture of grain and rubbish out of the stripper is put through this winnower, which cleans and bags the wheat ready for market.

In fair crops one winnower, with four men to work it, will keep two strippers going.

The stripper-harvester is another Australian invention. It is an improvement on the stripper, and is now in more general use. It is really a combined stripper and winnower. It takes off the heads of wheat, and also threshes and cleans them as it goes along, and delivers the grain into bags at the side of the machine. This reduces the cost of harvesting, as less labour is required. Two men can work a harvester, one driving the machine while the other removes and sews up the bags.

The machines cut 5 to 6 ft., but 8-ft. machines have proved successful of late, and with them a good area can be handled in a day. The smaller machine will strip about 10 acres of a fair crop in a working day.

[Ill.u.s.tration: (1) STEAM THRESHER. (2) STOOK-BUILDING. (3) HARVEST PICNIC. (4) BALING FOR EXPORT. (5) STOOKS READY FOR CARTING.]

WORKING THE WHEAT FARM.

The settler having acquired his land, he will require to fence in his holding, and also subdivide it into convenient paddocks or fields. All Australian farms are fenced, and in districts in which the rabbit is a menace the boundary fences are wire-netted. Unless timber is very plentiful wire fences are almost universal. Posts, which are obtained from timber on the farm that is fallen, and split into the necessary lengths, are erected 9 or 11 ft. apart, with six or seven wires running through them. Sometimes the posts are put at a greater distance apart, and "droppers" placed between them at distances of 7 or 8 ft. Some of these droppers are of split timber, but patent droppers, made of wire and iron, can be obtained. Where timber is scarce such fences are cheaper. The droppers hold the wires to which they are attached in their place, but are not sunk into the ground. Fencing costs about $144.00 to $168.00 per mile. Netting the fences to keep out the rabbit costs an additional $192.00 to $240.00 per mile. If the new farm consists of improved, that is, cleared or partly cleared land, the settler will probably get his crop in before he does his fencing. It would be better for him to do that than leave his sowing till unduly late.

Where green timber has to be cleared off the land it is ringbarked first, and the trees allowed to die before they are grubbed out.

Ringbarking consists of cutting a small strip of bark from around the trunk of the tree to prevent the flow of sap keeping it alive. After ringbarking, the trees usually throw out young shoots or "suckers,"

which have to be broken off. Usually this has to be done twice, and is called suckering. The deeper the trees are ringbarked, the bigger the piece of bark removed, the sooner it will die, but there is then a greater tendency to throw out suckers. The trees take two or three years to die, then they are grubbed and burnt. It is very seldom that the green trees are cut out at once, as this is very much more expensive, and for some time after removal the ground is too sour to be good for wheat or other crops. When the country is ringbarked the ground sweetens, and by the time the tree is dead is ready for cropping. While the trees are dying the country is usually used for grazing sheep and other stock, as it will be carrying good pasture. Of recent years a system has been tried, with considerable success, of poisoning the green timber with a mixture of a.r.s.enic and soda and water. A ring is chopped round the tree, and the bark thus makes a rough cup, into which the mixture is poured. This treatment has proved very effective.

The cost of ringbarking and all similar operations, of course, depends upon the amount of timber on the country, but it usually costs from 24 cents to 30 cents per acre, while suckering costs 8 cents to 12 cents per acre. After the trees are dead they are grubbed or burnt out, all roots to 12 or 18 in. depth being removed, and this work costs from $2.80 to $3.60 per acre. In some cases the country is what is known as "Yankee-grubbed," in which case the trees are cut off level with the ground, and roots allowed to remain in below the surface. When the country was used for grazing only, this was found a cheap and efficient method, but nevertheless only a small proportion of Australian wheat country has been so treated. To cultivate "Yankee-grubbed" country what are known as stump-jump implements, ploughs and cultivators are used.

These are available on the market, and as "Yankee-grubbing" is certainly cheaper than the usual method of grubbing, it has some attraction to the man with limited capital. The more careful farmers, however, do not advocate this method.

[Ill.u.s.tration: THRESHING BY HORSE POWER.]

It must be remembered that the above prices for clearing are where labour has to be employed. It must also be remembered that the amount of timber on different cla.s.ses of wheat country in the different States varies very much, so while it is usually estimated that clearing land for wheat costs about $4.30 per acre, it does not mean that it will always cost that, or, in any case, that the settler has to pay that amount out in cash. After the timber is grubbed and pulled down it is usually piled together and burnt. It burns well, and the burning enriches the soil. The settler starting in to clear his farm has ever the future picture in mind of when the work is done, and he has a beautifully-cleared, improved property on which to spend the latter years of his life. And there is no finer picture than an improved wheat farm, with its alternation of park-like paddocks, paddocks carrying a flock of sheep, paddocks of growing crops, and paddocks of fallowing ploughed land ready for the crop next season, or perhaps carrying a rotation crop of oats, rape, or cowpea. The homestead, surrounded by its orchard, stables, hayshed, and machinery sheds, and poultry run, will stand upon a rise, from which the whole property can be surveyed. And to none is the picture finer than to the man who by his own toil and energy has cleared and improved most of those paddocks. Such wheat farms are to be found in thousands throughout Australia.

One of the first things the settler has to do is to provide a water supply. It is the exception to find wheat farms with a natural permanent water supply, such as a creek or river. In most cases the settler depends upon tanks or dams for watering his stock. A suitable low-lying site is picked, and the earth is scooped out and banked up at the end and sides, so there is a hole into which the rainwater runs, following the natural lay of the country, and a.s.sisted and directed by drains and gutters. These tanks, as they are called, usually range from 1000 to 2000 cubic yards, and cost up to 24 cents or 30 cents per yard to excavate. In most districts the country holds water splendidly, and when the tank is filled by the autumn and winter rains it will carry through the summer. For domestic use galvanised tanks are depended upon, being placed to catch the rainwater off the rooms of the homestead buildings.

In some districts water is obtained by sinking shallow wells. In parts of the wheat country sub-artesian wells are also common, good water being obtained by boring 200 to 300 ft., when an unfailing supply of good water for stock is secured. The real artesian country, where deep bores are sunk for water, is outside the present wheat belt.

In the season ploughing usually starts at 7.30 a.m. and goes on until 5.30 p.m., with a break of a couple of hours during the day for dinner; that is, where labour is employed. The settler himself handling his own land usually works from dawn till dark, using changes of horses during the day. Both mouldboard and disc ploughs are in use, some soils suiting one and some the other, while use for both will often be found on the one farm. The four-furrow plough, drawn by five or six horses, is most favoured, and with it four to six acres will be done in a day. Harrowing is done with a set of three to six sections of tines, covering from 12 to 20 ft. in width, and doing 15 to 20 acres a day. The bulk of the sowing is done with a combined drill, which plants the seed and distributes artificial fertiliser at the same time. The amount of seed sown per acre varies from 25 to 45 lbs., and even up to 100 lbs. in some parts of the Commonwealth, while usually about the same amount of superphosphate is distributed, 45 to 60 lbs. being the most common quant.i.ty. Both hoes and disc drills are in use, ranging from twelve to fifteen tubes, the tubes being 7 in. apart. These particulars apply mostly to the man cultivating 200 to 300 acres himself.

It is often found beneficial to harrow the growing crop until it is 3 or 4 in. high. While the crop is growing the settler will find plenty to do in clearing and improving his property, attending to his sheep, and so on. If he is on shares he will find work for his team and himself on other properties, at contract work, or on the local roads.

Harvest time comes well on in the summer, and for several weeks everyone is busy on the farm. It is usual when putting in a wheat crop to sow a portion for hay. Either a separate crop is sown or a special variety suitable for hay is sown around the main grain crop. This is cut with the reaper and binder just after the wheat plant has flowered. The sheaves, which are tied by the machine, are stooked in the paddock for ten or fourteen days until dry enough to be carted in and stacked. The climate--as a rule fine weather prevails--is favourable to haymaking, and a bright-coloured nutritious hay is produced. The average yield is a ton to one ton and a-half to the acre, but three, four, and even five ton crops are taken off, but that is usually in a crop sown and cultivated specially for hay with the intention of supplying the chaff market, which is an industry in itself. The wheatfarmer, properly speaking, only cuts what he will require for his own horses. A reaper and binder is drawn by three horses, and will cut from 10 to 12 acres per day. One man is required to drive the machine, and one or two men to pick up and stook the sheaves. Some farmers cut their own hay for chaff, working the machine either by hand or with horse-works for turning the cutting wheel, but the majority have the hay cut by contractors, who travel through the country with a special plant for the purpose, charging $2.16 per ton for cutting. After a portion round the edges of the crops has been cut for hay a strip of land is ploughed around the crop in the stubble for the purpose of making a break in case of fire, and thus enabling a fire that might approach the crop being controlled on the bare ploughed ground.

[Ill.u.s.tration: CARTING WHEAT TO RAILWAY STATION.]

The wheat crop is allowed to become dead ripe in the paddock, as for stripping the ears must be dry and quite ripe. Once it is ready to strip every effort is made to take the crop off as quickly as possible, as it does not improve standing, for some of the grain is likely to be shaken out by winds. The more modern wheats, however, hold the grain wonderfully against wind or hail. Varieties of wheat are sown so they will mature at different times, which extends the harvesting period, as one crop will be ready to harvest before the other is quite ripe, and there is thus a useful rotation. At harvesting time work usually starts in the paddock about 8 a.m., as the wheat does not strip well until the hot sun gets on it, as it toughens during the night. The work goes on until 7 or 7.30 p.m., with a break of two hours at mid-day, and spells of twenty minutes in the morning and afternoon. Where labour is employed one man drives the harvester, but his horses are looked after, fed, groomed, and harnessed for him. This saves time, and enables the crop to be taken off the more quickly. Of course, the farmer in a small way will do his own work, requiring only a little a.s.sistance at harvest time, someone to sew up and stack the bags. As there is always a rush at harvest time, the bags of grain are often left lying in the paddocks in small heaps until the crop is all off, when they are carted to the railway or mill. Some farmers do their own carting, but the majority pay the regular carriers to do this work, the cost varying according to distance, but is generally done for 24 cents per ton per mile. About 12-1/2 bags of wheat go to the ton.

[Ill.u.s.tration: AUSTRALIAN WHEAT FOR EXPORT FROM FARM TO WHARF.]

At present in Australia wheat is all handled in bags which contain about 3 bushels of grain. The price of empty bags varies from $1.50 to $2.00 per doz. Very few second-hand bags are used. The different State Governments in Australia are now considering the wisdom of introducing the American system of handling wheat in bulk. The Governments of New South Wales and of Western Australia have definitely announced their intention of establishing that system, while it is being favourably considered in Victoria. Once the system was introduced in any of the States it would probably be only a short time before it was adopted throughout the Commonwealth. At present, however, bags are in universal use, the grain being thus carried both for local and export trade.

The settler finds no difficulty in selling his wheat, as grain merchants and millers compete for it. Often sales are made before the crop is ripe. The large wheat merchants and shippers have their agents in every town, and these men visit the farms, inspect the grain, and make an offer according to the ruling market price. The local millers are also competing for what grain they want for local consumption. The grower is paid on delivery at the mill or the nearest railway station. If he prefers to do so he can store it with the buying firms, giving them the right to purchase when he is prepared to sell, or he can store on the farm. The export values of wheat per bushel for the last six years, have been:--

1909 $1.00 1910 1.00 1911 0.84 1912 0.95 1913 0.84 1914 0.82

Wheat is bought and sold on what is known as the f.a.q. (fair average quality) system. Samples of wheat are taken from the various districts by the different Chambers of Commerce, and each State fixes its own f.a.q. standard. These samples are mixed together, and by careful testing on a patent scale it is ascertained what an Imperial bushel of weight actually weighs. The idea is to ascertain as equitably as possible what a fair average sample of the season's wheat should weigh.

The standard varies a little in different years; it may be 61, 62, 64, or as low as 58 lbs. to the bushel. Whatever it is fixed at for the season that is the basis upon which all sales are made. If the market price for wheat, for instance, is $1.20 per bushel, it is for wheat up to the f.a.q. standard. Say the latter has been fixed at 62 lbs., the wheat must show that weight. Agents have what is called a chrondrometer for the purpose of testing the wheat. If it is below the f.a.q.

standard, a lower price is given. This system has been devised to suit the export trade. Samples of the standard wheat are sent to markets abroad, and all cargoes are sold on that basis. When they arrive at the market abroad they must test up to the f.a.q. standard. This system has been in force in Australia for nearly half a century.

It must be understood that this standard f.a.q. weight has nothing to do with the quant.i.ty for which the grower is paid. He is always paid on the Imperial bushel basis, 60 lbs. Whatever the standard may be, every 60 lbs. of wheat is a bushel. The f.a.q. weight is a standard for quality, not quant.i.ty.

There is always a market for Australian wheat, and the price is always equal to what wheat is bringing in the world's main markets. Australian wheat has a character of its own, and a character that is improving.

British millers want it on account of the large amount of flour it produces, and the colour and bloom it gives to their product. The grain is usually bright and clear in texture and rich in gluten, having fine milling qualities. Of late years Australian wheats have been considerably improved in strength, and this factor is continuing, and they undoubtedly promise to more than equal any wheat produced, possessing not only colour and bloom, but also strength, and giving the miller what he wants to produce an ideal article.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FARMERS IN AUSTRALIA ARE NOT HARa.s.sED BY HIGH RAIL FREIGHTS.]

COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT.

The cost of production of wheat is a most important matter to the grower. As already stated, the comparatively low yields in Australia are amply compensated for by the low cost of producing wheat.

In regard to the work on the farm, the following figures are approximately the prices for different cla.s.ses of work when it is done by contract:--Ploughing new ground, $1.68 per acre; old or fallowed ground, $1.45 per acre; harrowing, 18 cents to 24 cents per acre; cultivating, $0.50 per acre; drilling, 36 cents per acre; harvesting with stripper-harvester, 72 cents per acre; cutting with binder, 84 cents per acre; stooking, 24 cents per acre; carting and stacking hay, $1.35 per acre.

Superphosphate is the main fertiliser used. Australian wheat soils are naturally strong in nitrogen and potash, but in many cases are deficient in available phosphoric acid. Superphosphate costs about $1.20 per cwt., and may be reckoned at 48 cents to 60 cents per acre. Seed wheat runs from 96 cents to $1.20 per bushel; sowing 45 lbs. to the acre represents 72 cents to 84 cents per acre.

It is reckoned that if the same work is done by weekly-paid labour the cost is reduced by fully 30 per cent. all round.

[Ill.u.s.tration: HARVESTING SCENE, DARLING DOWNS, QUEENSLAND]

In common practice it is considered that it costs $4.80 to $6.00 per acre to put in and take off an acre of wheat. The following figures are reliable estimates of the actual cost of production by official experts, and also actual figures supplied by working farmers.

In the following estimate of the cost of producing wheat it is a.s.sumed that the land is fallowed, and the estimate is based on a yield of 20 bushels per acre:--

Ploughing once at $1.45 per acre $1.45

Harrowing three times at 18 cents per acre 0.54

Cultivating once at $0.60 per acre 0.60

Drilling at 36 cents per acre 0.36

Seed, 45 lbs., at 80 cents per bushel 0.72

Pickling seed 0.06

Superphosphate, 1/2 cwt. at $1.20 0.60

Harvesting with harvester at 72 cents per acre 0.72