There are various causes by which force or motion may be produced. But in the animal body we recognise as the ultimate cause of all force only one cause, the chemical action which the elements of the food and the oxygen of the air mutually exercise on each other. The only known ultimate cause of vital force, either in animals or in plants, is a chemical process. If this be prevented, the phenomena of life do not manifest themselves, or they cease to be recognisable by our senses. If the chemical action be impeded, the vital phenomena must take new forms.

The heat evolved by the combustion of carbon in the body is sufficient to account for all the phenomena of animal heat. The 14 oz. of carbon which in an adult are daily converted into carbonic acid disengage a quant.i.ty of heat which would convert 24 lb. of water, at the temperature of the body, into vapour. And if we a.s.sume that the quant.i.ty of water vaporised through the skin and lungs amounts to 3 lb., then we have still a large quant.i.ty of heat to sustain the temperature of the body.

_III.--The Chemistry of Blood-Making_

Physiologists conceive that the various organs in the body have originally been formed from blood. If this be admitted, it is obvious that those substances alone can be considered nutritious that are capable of being transformed into blood.

When blood is allowed to stand, it coagulates and separates into a watery fluid called serum, and into the clot, which consists princ.i.p.ally of fibrine. These two bodies contain, in all, seven elements, among which sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen are found; they contain also the earth of bones. The serum holds in solution common salt and other salts of potash and soda, of which the acids are carbonic, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids. Serum, when heated, coagulates into a white ma.s.s called alb.u.men. This substance, along with the fibrine and a red colouring matter in which iron is a const.i.tuent, const.i.tute the globules of blood.

a.n.a.lysis has shown that fibrine and alb.u.men are perfectly identical in chemical composition. They may be mutually converted into each other. In the process of nutrition both may be converted into muscular fibre, and muscular fibre is capable of being reconverted into blood.

All parts of the animal body which form parts of organs contain nitrogen. The princ.i.p.al ingredients of blood contain 17 per cent. of nitrogen, and there is no part of an active organ that contains less than 17 per cent. of this element.

The nutritive process is simplest in the case of the carnivora, for their nutriment is chemically identical in composition with their own tissues. The digestive apparatus of graminivorous animals is less simple, and their food contains very little nitrogen. From what const.i.tuents of vegetables is their blood produced?

Chemical researches have shown that all such parts of vegetables as can afford nutriment to animals contain certain const.i.tuents which are rich in nitrogen; and experience proves that animals require for their nutrition less of these parts of plants in proportion as they abound in the nitrogenised const.i.tuents. These important products are specially abundant in the seeds of the different kinds of grain, and of peas, beans, and lentils. They exist, however, in all plants, without exception, and in every part of plants in larger or smaller quant.i.ty.

The nitrogenised compounds of vegetables are called vegetable fibrine, vegetable alb.u.men, and vegetable casein. All other nitrogenised compounds occurring in plants are either rejected by animals or else they occur in the food in such very small proportion that they cannot possibly contribute to the increase of ma.s.s in the animal body.

The chemical a.n.a.lysis of these three substances has led to the interesting result that they contain the same organic elements, united in the same proportion by weight; and--which is more remarkable--that they are identical in composition with the chief const.i.tuents of blood--animal fibrine and animal alb.u.men. By ident.i.ty, be it remarked, is not here meant merely similarity, but that even in regard to the presence and relative amounts of sulphur, phosphorus, and phosphate of lime no difference can be observed.

How beautifully simple then, by the aid of these discoveries, appears the process of nutrition in animals, the formation of their organs, in which vitality chiefly resides. Those vegetable const.i.tuents which are used by animals to form blood contain the essential ingredients of blood ready formed. In point of fact, vegetables produce in their organism the blood of all animals; for the carnivora, in consuming the blood and flesh of the graminivora, consume, strictly speaking, the vegetable principles which have served for the nourishment of the latter. In this sense we may say the animal organism gives to blood only its form; and, further, that it is incapable of forming blood out of other compounds which do not contain the chief ingredients of that fluid.

Animal and vegetable life are, therefore, closely related, for the first substance capable of affording nutriment to animals is the last product of the creative energy of vegetables. The seemingly miraculous in the nutritive power of vegetables disappears in a great degree, for the production of the const.i.tuents of blood cannot appear more surprising than the occurrence of the princ.i.p.al ingredient of b.u.t.ter in palm-oil and of horse-fat and train-oil in certain of the oily seeds.

_IV.--Food the Fuel of Life_

We have still to account for the use in food of substances which are dest.i.tute of nitrogen but are known to be necessary to animal life. Such substances are starch, sugar, gum, and pectine. In all of these we find a great excess of carbon, with oxygen and hydrogen in the same proportion as water. They therefore add an excess of carbon to the nitrogenised const.i.tuents of food, and they cannot possibly be employed in the production of blood, because the nitrogenised compounds contained in the food already contain exactly the amount of carbon which is required for the production of fibrine and alb.u.men. Now, it can be shown that very little of the excess of this carbon is ever expelled in the form either of solid or liquid compounds; it must be expelled, therefore, in the gaseous state. In short, these compounds are solely expended in the production of animal heat, being converted by the oxygen of the air into carbonic acid and water. The food of carnivorous animals does not contain non-nitrogenised matters, so that the carbon and hydrogen necessary for the production of animal heat are furnished in them from the waste of their tissues.

The transformed matters of the organs are obviously unfit for the further nourishment of the body--that is, for the increase or reproduction of the ma.s.s. They pa.s.s through the absorbent and lymphatic vessels into the veins, and their acc.u.mulation in these would soon put a stop to the nutritive process were it not that the blood has to pa.s.s through a filtering apparatus, as it were, before reaching the heart.

The venous blood, before returning to the heart, is made to pa.s.s through the liver and the kidneys, which separate from it all substances incapable of contributing to nutrition. The new compounds containing the nitrogen of the transformed organs, being utterly incapable of further application in the system, are expelled from the body. Those which contain the carbon of the transformed tissues are collected in the gall-bladder as bile, a compound of soda which, being mixed with water, pa.s.ses through the duodenum and mixes with chyme. All the soda of the bile, and ninety-nine-hundredths of the carbonaceous matter which it contains, retain the capacity of re-absorption by the absorbents of the small and large intestines--a capacity which has been proved by direct experiment.

The globules of the blood, which in themselves can be shown to take no share in the nutritive process, serve to transport the oxygen which they give up in their pa.s.sage through the capillary vessels. Here the current of oxygen meets with the carbonaceous substances of the transformed tissues, and converts their carbon into carbonic acid, their hydrogen into water. Every portion of these substances which escapes this process of oxidation is sent back into the circulation in the form of bile, which by degrees completely disappears.

It is obvious that in the system of the graminivora, whose food contains relatively so small a proportion of the const.i.tuents of blood, the process of metamorphosis in existing tissues, and consequently their restoration or reproduction, must go on far less rapidly than in the carnivora. Otherwise, a vegetation a thousand times as luxuriant would not suffice for their sustenance. Sugar, gum, and starch, which form so large a proportion of their food, would then be no longer necessary to support life in these animals, because in that case the products of waste, or metamorphosis of organised tissues, would contain enough carbon to support the respiratory process.

When exercise is denied to graminivorous and omnivorous animals this is tantamount to a deficient supply of oxygen. The carbon of the food, not meeting with a sufficient supply of oxygen to consume it, pa.s.ses into other compounds containing a large excess of carbon--or, in other words, fat is produced. Fat is thus an abnormal production, resulting from a disproportion of carbon in the food to that of the oxygen respired by the lungs or absorbed by the skin. Wild animals in a state of nature do not contain fat. The production of fat is always a consequence of a deficient supply of oxygen, for oxygen is absolutely indispensable for the dissipation of excess of carbon in the food.

_V.--Animal Life-Chemistry_

The substances of which the food of man is composed may be divided into two cla.s.ses--into nitrogenised and non-nitrogenised. The former are capable of conversion into blood, the latter incapable of this transformation. Out of those substances which are adapted to the formation of blood are formed all the organised tissues. The other cla.s.s of substances in the normal state of health serve to support the process of respiration. The former may be called the plastic elements of nutrition; the latter, elements of respiration.

Among the former we may reckon--vegetable fibrine, vegetable alb.u.men, vegetable casein, animal flesh, animal blood.

Among the elements of respiration in our food are--fat, starch, gum, cane sugar, grape-sugar, sugar of milk, pectine, ba.s.sorine, wine, beer, spirits.

The nitrogenised const.i.tuents of vegetable food have a composition identical with that of the const.i.tuents of the blood.

No nitrogenised compound the composition of which differs from that of fibrine, alb.u.men, and casein, is capable of supporting the vital process in animals.

The animal organism undoubtedly possesses the power of forming from the const.i.tuents of its blood the substance of its membranes and cellular tissue, of the nerves and brain, of the organic part of cartilages and bones. But the blood must be supplied to it ready in everything but its form--that is, in its chemical composition. If this is not done, a period is put to the formation of blood, and, consequently, to life.

The whole life of animals consists of a conflict between chemical forces and the vital power. In the normal state of the body of an adult these stand in equilibrium: that is, there is equilibrium between the manifestations of the causes of waste and the causes of supply. Every mechanical or chemical agency which disturbs the restoration of this equilibrium is a cause of disease.

Death is that condition in which chemical or mechanical powers gain the ascendancy, and all resistance on the part of the vital force ceases.

This resistance never entirely departs from living tissues during life.

Such deficiency in resistance is, in fact, a deficiency in resistance to the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere.

Disease occurs when the sum of vital force, which tends to neutralise all causes of disturbance, is weaker than the acting cause of disturbance.

Should there be formed in the diseased parts, in consequence of the change of matter, from the elements of the blood or of the tissue, new products which the neighbouring parts cannot employ for their own vital functions; should the surrounding parts, moreover, be unable to convey these products to other parts where they may undergo transformation, then these new products will suffer, at the place where they have been formed, a process of decomposition a.n.a.logous to putrefaction.

In certain cases, medicine removes these diseased conditions by exciting in the vicinity of the diseased part, or in any convenient situation, an artificial diseased state (as by blisters), thus diminishing by means of artificial disturbance the resistance offered to the external causes of change in these parts by the vital force. The physician succeeds in putting an end to the original diseased condition when the disturbance artificially excited (or the diminution of resistance in another part) exceeds in amount the diseased state to be overcome.

The accelerated change of matter and the elevated temperature in the diseased part show that the resistance offered by the vital force to the action of oxygen is feebler than in the healthy state. But this resistance only ceases entirely when death takes place. By the artificial diminution of resistance in another part, the resistance in the diseased organ is not, indeed, directly strengthened; but the chemical action, the cause of the change of matter, is diminished in the diseased part, being directed to another part, where the physician has succeeded in producing a still more feeble resistance to the change of matter, to the action of oxygen.

SIR CHARLES LYELL

The Principles of Geology

Sir Charles Lyell, the distinguished geologist, was born at Kinnordy, Forfarshire, Scotland, Nov. 14, 1797. It was at Oxford that his scientific interest was first aroused, and after taking an M.A. degree in 1821 he continued his scientific studies, becoming an active member of the Geological and Linnaean Societies of London.

In 1826 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and two years later went with Sir Roderick Murchison on a tour of Europe, and gathered evidence for the theory of geological uniformity which he afterwards promulgated. In 1830 he published his great work, "Principles of Geology: Being an Attempt to Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by References to Causes now in Action," which converted almost the whole geological world to the doctrine of uniformitarianism, and may be considered the foundation of modern geology. Lyell died in London on February 22, 1875.

Besides his great work, he also published "The Elements of Geology," "The Antiquity of Man," "Travels in North America," and "The Student's Elements of Geology."

_I.--Uniformity in Geological Development_

According to the speculations of some writers, there have been in the past history of the planet alternate periods of tranquillity and convulsion, the former enduring for ages, and resembling the state of things now experienced by man; the other brief, transient, and paroxysmal, giving rise to new mountains, seas, and valleys, annihilating one set of organic beings, and ushering in the creation of another. These theories, however, are not borne out by a fair interpretation of geological monuments; but, on the contrary, nature indicates no such cataclysms, but rather progressive uniformity.

Igneous rocks have been supposed to afford evidence of ancient paroxysms of nature, but we cannot consider igneous rocks proof of any exceptional paroxysms. Rather, we find ourselves compelled to regard igneous rocks as an aggregate effect of innumerable eruptions, of various degrees of violence, at various times, and to consider mountain chains as the acc.u.mulative results of these eruptions. The inc.u.mbent crust of the earth is never allowed to attain that strength and coherence which would be necessary in order to allow the volcanic force to acc.u.mulate and form an explosive charge capable of producing a grand paroxysmal eruption. The subterranean power, on the contrary, displays, even in its most energetic efforts, an intermittent and mitigated intensity. There are no proofs that the igneous rocks were produced more abundantly at remote periods.

Nor can we find proof of catastrophic discontinuity when we examine fossil plants and fossil animals. On the contrary, we find a progressive development of organic life at successive geological periods.

In Palaeozoic strata the entire want of plants of the most complex organisation is very striking, for not a single dicotyledonous angiosperm has yet been found, and only one undoubted monocotyledon. In Secondary, or Mesozoic, times, palms and some other monocotyledons appeared; but not till the Upper Cretaceous era do we meet with the princ.i.p.al cla.s.ses and orders of the vegetable kingdom as now known.

Through the Tertiary ages the forms were perpetually changing, but always becoming more and more like, generically and specifically, to those now in being. On the whole, therefore, we find progressive development of plant life in the course of the ages.

In the case of animal life, progression is equally evident.

Palaeontological research leads to the conclusion that the invertebrate animals flourished before the vertebrate, and that in the latter cla.s.s fish, reptiles, birds, and mammalia made their appearance in a chronological order a.n.a.logous to that in which they would be arranged zoologically according to an advancing scale of perfection in their organisation. In regard to the mammalia themselves, they have been divided by Professor Owen into four sub-cla.s.ses by reference to modifications of their brain. The two lowest are met with in the Secondary strata. The next in grade is found in Tertiary strata. And the highest of all, of which man is the sole representative, has not yet been detected in deposits older than the Post-Tertiary.

It is true that in pa.s.sing from the older to the newer members of the Tertiary system we meet with many chasms, but none which separate entirely, by a broad line of demarcation, one state of the organic world from another. There are no signs of an abrupt termination of one fauna and flora, and the starting into life of new and wholly distinct forms.

Although we are far from being able to demonstrate geologically an insensible transition from the Eocene to the Miocene, or even from the latter to the recent fauna, yet the more we enlarge and perfect our general survey the more nearly do we approximate to such a continuous series, and the more gradually are we conducted from times when many of the genera and nearly all the species were extinct to those in which scarcely a single species flourished which we do not know to exist at present. We must remember, too, that many gaps in animal and floral life were due to ordinary climatic and geological factors. We could, under no circ.u.mstances, expect to meet with a complete ascending series.

The great vicissitudes in climate which the earth undoubtedly experienced, as shown by geological records, have been held to be themselves proof of sudden violent revolutions in the life-history of the world. But all the great climatic vicissitudes can be accounted for by the action of factors still, in operation--subsidences and elevations of land, alterations in the relative proportions and position of land and water, variations in the relative position of our planet to the sun and other heavenly bodies.